Early Contributors to Sociology
Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
• coined term “sociology”
• positive philosophy==>positivism
• evolution of social thought
from religion to natural law
to a reliance on observations
on the five senses
Theories of Society
The Typology Tradition
– Toennies: Gemeinschaft & Gesellschaft
– Durkheim: Mechanical & Organic Solidarity
– Weber: Traditional & Rational Society
– Marx: Feudalism, Capitalism, & Socialism
Ferdinand Toennies (1855-1936)
Social Relationships
• Gemeinschaft
(community)
– interaction based
upon tradition and
loyalty
– ascribed order
– undifferentiated
society and labor
– family like groups
bounded by localities
• Gesellschaft
(Society)
– interaction based on
ration weighing of
ends and means
– achieved status
– impersonal
– complex division of
labor
– meritocracy and
bureaucracy
Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)
• Mechanical Solidarity
– similarity in local
beliefs and activities
(usually agriculture)
– Collective Conscious
– individualism is
curbed
• Organic Solidarity
– Complex division of
labor in the economy
and society
– interdependence of
individuals and
institutions
– organic model
Max Weber (1864-1920)
• Traditional Society
– based upon tradition
authority
– close family-like
relationships
– religion
– common symbols and
activities
• Rational Society
– based upon rationallegal authority
– efficiency over custom
– scientific
– impersonal and
bureaucratic
Karl Marx (1818-1883)
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Stages of history
Feudalism Serfs and Lords
Capitalism Proletariat and Bourgeoises
Class Conflict and Exploitation and class
consciousness
• Power Analyses and Hegemonic Control
Social Darwinism
•Evolved from Darwin’s theory of
evolution (1858)
•Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)
•survival of the fittest
•society is evolving and getting
better
•hunter-gatherers to modern
society
Contemporary Theory, and
Research
Cutting across all social paradigms:
Macrotheory
•aggregates or large groups
•entire societies
Microtheory
•diads, triads, families
•social life of small groups
Structural Functionalism
•social systems theory
•components of society arise
from structure and function
•functions reaffirm society
and societal values
•manifest and latent
functions
Structural Functionalism
What are the Manifest and Latent Functions of
the York Galleria Mall?
Conflict Paradigm
•Karl Marx (1818-1883)
•social behavior is seen as
attempts to dominate or avoid
domination
•Class Conflict -- Proletariat Vs.
Bourgeoisie
•Utopian Society
Role Theory
•Ralph Linton (1895-1953)
•Status
•Roles
•Role Conflict
•Role Strain
Symbolic Interaction
•Simmel, Mead, and Cooley
•Primary Group
1858-1918
•Looking-Glass Self
•Taking The Role of the Other
1863-1931
1864-1929
•Common understanding of
symbols
•Interpreting symbols in
context
Exchange Paradigm
•human behavior is seen
through the evaluation of
relative costs and benefits
•rewards lead to actions
•more value increases
likelihood of action
•high frequency of rewards
diminishes the worth of the
reward
Ethnomethodology
•reality is tentative
•actors try to anticipate behavior
on the basis of roles -- but social
reality is continually being
constructed when “rules” are
broken
•establish expectations -- rule
breaking experiments
Feminist Paradigm
•gender differences in social
organization
•men control and dominate
social processes to their
advantage
What’s Really Real?
Views on Reality
• Pre-modern View
• Modern View
• Postmodern View
Major Theoretical Perspectives
Theory
Abstract statement explaining how
and why some sets of concepts are
linked.
Helps interpret data
Helps show us what questions to
ask
Helps generate. . . . hypotheses
Sociological Research
Ordinary Human Inquiry
• Causal and Probabilistic
• Tradition
• Authority
Sociological Research
Sources of Errors in Inquiry
• Inaccurate Observation
• Overgeneralization
• Selective Observation
• Illogical Reasoning
Sociological Research
Types of Research
•Quantitative
•Qualitative
Sociological Research
The Conventional Research Model
•Selecting and defining the problem
•Reviewing previous research
•Formulating Hypothesis (if appropriate)
•Developing the research design
•Collecting and analyzing the data
•Drawing conclusions and reporting the findings
The Wheel of Science
•Nomothetic
•Idiographic
•Quantitative
•Qualitative
•Deductive
•Inductive
Sociological Research
Data Collection and Analysis Techniques
•Surveys
•Questionnaire
•Interview
•Secondary data
•Field Research
•Participant Observation
•Ethnography
•Experiments
Sociological Research
Ethics in Social Research
1. NO HARM TO SUBJECTS
2. INFORMED CONSENT