Unit 1: The
Science of
Psychology
Why study Psychology?
 “Out
of sight out of mind” or “absence
makes the heart grow fonder”?
 Why do we always feel like we “knew it all
along”?
 How do you remember information from
class and recall it for tests? Is there a trick to
do this better?
 What causes good and bad moods?
Disorders? What’s the difference?
 What interests you?!
Why study Psychology?
 What
questions do you have about the
way people think and behave?
So what can you do with
Psychology???

Academic and Applied Psychology


Research Psychology



Experimentation, Lab Work
Clinical Settings


Sports, Forensics, I/O, Personality, Developmental,
Art Therapy, Animal
Mental Health Hospitals
Social Work/Counseling
Psychiatry (M.D.)
**A major in psychology can help in a countless
number of fields**
One of these people could be
you!
Wednesday!!
You know
you want
to be him.
Essential Questions
 What
are the “enduring issues” of
Psychology?

What questions always arise when
discovering the cause of behavior?
 What
approaches to psychology have
people taken throughout history?
 Are psychological findings applicable
across cultures?
 What are the various research methods
used to classify psychology as scientific
and not just here say?
What is Psychology?
 Official
definition: The scientific study of
behavior and mental processes.



Scientific study = Experimentation, research
Behavior = How we act (observable)
Mental Processes = How we think, interpret,
perceive
Psychology
Personality
Physiological
Sensation and Perception
States of Consciousness
Memory
Learning
Disorders
Social
Developmental
Cognition and
Intelligence
Motivation and
Emotion
Psychological Organizations
 APA
– American Psychological
Association

53 Subdivisions (pg 6)
 APS-
American Psychological Society
Enduring Issues
 What
holds Psychology together?
 Enduring Issues are shared throughout:





Person – Situation (You vs. Influence of surroundings)
Nature – Nurture (Were you born that way?)
Stability – Change (You now vs. you in 30 years)
Diversity – Universality ( You vs. Others)
Mind – Body (Ongoing interaction)
Person vs. Situation
 This
behavior could be the result of
___________ or ______________.
Nature vs. Nurture
 The
fact that two of the Osbourne
children followed their parents into the
spotlight and one didn’t could be the
result of: _________ or ______________.
Stability vs. Change
 How
much will you change over _______
and/or ____________?
Diversity vs. Universality
 To
what extent are certain characteristics
and behaviors _________, and how may
they _______ between individuals?
Tribal group of North Shore HS
Tribal group of India
Mind vs. Body
 How
much of our behavior is influenced
by our _________, and how much is
influenced by our _________ processes?
Mmm sugar
History of Psychology
 Psychology
was around as philosophy
since the time of Plato and Aristotle
 Late 19th century – Psychology began as
a science

1879- Wilhelm Wundt opens first psychology
lab in Germany
History of Psychology
 Students
of Wundt spread psychology
around the world

U.S. – G. Stanley Hall creates first psych lab
at Johns Hopkins in 1883
 William
James- 1st psychology course @
Harvard
G. Stanley Hall
William James
At least I
was the first
prez…
Where my girls at?

Mary Whiton Calkins was a doctoral student
of James’




When admitted to program, all men dropped
out
Denied Ph.D. from Harvard
Became first female president of APA
Margaret Floy Washburn


Was a doctoral student of Titchener
First female to earn Ph.D. in Psychology (Cornell)
Back to the history of psychology…. Next up: Various “schools
of thought”.
History of Psychology:
Psychodynamic Psychology
 Sigmund
Freud and Psychodynamic
Psychology



Believed ailments were largely psychological
(the way one thinks) and not physiological (body
chemistry, structure)
Free will is an illusion (we are shaped by conflicts
in our youth that cannot be amended)
Driven by unconscious instincts and urges
 Psychsexual

Pessimistic!!!!
stages from foundation of personality
Example:
Jane is sad. Her dad never
gives her attention
because is he always busy
at work or going out for a
drink. When he comes
home, he yells or
completely ignores her.
She tries to win his
affection by giving him
gifts, but he never quite
gives her the love she
wants.
Example:
In adulthood, Jane now seeks
the attention of every male. She
tends to gravitate towards men
who have the same tendencies
as her father. Subconsciously,
she is trying to resolve the
conflict that arose from never
receiving the love that she
sought from her father
throughout her childhood.
Turn of the Century --> Turn in
Psychological Theory


Up to the early 20th c., it was all about mental
processes
Enter John B. Watson and Behaviorism




Can’t measure something that can’t be
observed (Freud based his theories on
assumptions)
Based on Pavlov’s work on digestion
All mental experiences are changes caused by
“conditioning”  Learned Associations
Theoretically, you could train a child to be
anything you wanted (tabula rasa)
Example:
Tori likes dogs.
Tori tried to pet Dennis.
Dennis is a dog.
Dennis growled.
Tori pairs dogs with fear.
Behaviorism (cont.)

B.F. Skinner adds reinforcement to “conditioning”


In summary, conditioning determines behavior





Chores + Money (positive reinforcement) = Chores get done
Why do we get “feelings” when we smell familiar scents (i.e.
cologne, perfume)
Why does the crinkling of a potato bag make us hungry?
Why does the sound an alarm clock make us anxious or
angry?
All about connections we automatically make-simple!!!
(makes us similar to dogs?)
Dominates psychology into 1960s… problems?

Where is the impact of genetics? Evolution?
Cognitive Psychology Steps In
 Behavior
is piece of puzzle, but what goes
on while learning takes place?
 Cognitive = we are active in learning
process (not passive learners)

Use memories, mental templates,
expectations, etc. to inform behavior
 Precursors:


1. Gestalt
2. Humanistic
Gestalt:
“Whole”
We see the big picture, i.e. patterns, and can complete a
picture with a few cues
Why do neon signs with alternating lights make the sign appear
to move?
These phenomena are “proof” that the mind works in ways which
we cannot see or observe (nix behaviorism)
Humanism
 Abraham
 Abe
Abe 
Maslow
 Feelings, yearnings, needs play a role in
what we do
 Depends largely on culture
 The mind factors these needs when
calculating behavior
Cognitive Revolution

Recap: Shift from behavior to mental
processes that involves Gestalt and
Humanistic theories.

What are mental processes?


Thinking, judging, learning, remembering
Use behavior to infer mental processes
I.E. Use recollection of a list of facts (behavior) to
imply how facts were encoded (connection to
other facts, location in list, etc.)
 Brain-imaging techniques assist in studying parts
of brain that are activated during different tasks

New Directions
 Evolutionary


Psychology
Origins of behavior patterns and mental
processes- how are they adaptive?
Parenting, sexual attraction, mate
selection, jealousy, violence
How does our society value
“muscles”? Why?
New Directions
 Positive




Psychology
Studying “the good life”- happiness,
leadership, and the environments in which
they take place
We know about mental illness, but what
about wellness?
Be happy, rather than fix sadness
Critical thinking: autonomy
Multiple Perspectives
 Today,
psychologists explain events and
phenomena by accessing all
perspectives (behavioral, evolutionary,
etc.) rather than sticking to one viewpoint
 Biopsychosocial Approach – Use
biological, psychological, and social
explanations
Example: Why is Jerry an
alcoholic?
 1)
Addiction runs in Jerry’s family. (Bio)
 2) Jerry just lost his job. (Social)
 3) Jerry begins to believe he is unworthy of
any job and will never succeed. (Psycho)
Recap!!
 What
is behavioral psychology?
 How does cognitive psychology build
upon behavioral psychology?
 We will return to this later!!
Research Methods in
Psychology

Empirical Evidence

Information derived from systematic, objective
observation.
There are many methods through which this is
gained:





Naturalistic Observation
Case Study
Survey
Correlational Research
Experimental Research
Naturalistic Observation


Study human or animal behavior in natural context
Pros:


Behavior is more likely to be genuine
Cons:



Can’t manipulate environment or “freeze” the
situation to study an event in depth
More difficult to be “systematic”
Observer Bias


People distort perceptions unintentionally to “see
what they want to see” or what they’re looking for
*Uninformed researchers
Case Study
 Detailed
description of one or a few
individuals
 Can include interviews, observations,
tests, etc.
 Pros:

In-depth view of one individual
 Cons:


Observer Bias
Tough to generalize from one person
Surveys
 Interviews
or questionnaires through which
predetermined questions are asked
 Pros:

Can get a vast amount of information
relatively easily
 Cons:


“leading questions”
Subjects are conscious of others’
perception- can illicit inaccurate responses
Correlational Research




Method used to find a relationship between
two or more variables
Example: SATs and career success, Stress and
physical illness, heredity of illness
Other examples?
Pros:


Allows us to predict behavior, outcomes, or
events
Cons:

Correlation does not equal causation!!!!!
Psychology today is a Science,
therefore we also use
*Experiments*

Scientific Method


Experiments aim to prove theories:


Is there a link between an increase in social
networking and a decrease in social skills?
Ex of Theory: Social networking causes adolescents to
use social skills less, thus becoming less proficient.
Hypothesis is generate from theory and tested

Ex: With more controls on social networking usage,
children will develop better social skills.
Experimental Research
 Can
come after correlational research to
test predictions
 **Determine cause and effect!!!!!!**
 Example: I want to know if consuming
sugar helps test performance... What’s my
experiment???
Experimental Method: Step 1
 Form





a hypothesis!!!!
A statement that predicts the outcome.
Should be an “IF – THEN” statement
Example: If depressed students take pill ‘X’,
then they will not experience symptoms as
severely.
Taking electrolytes before a game will
improve performance. – IF-THEN?
Create a hypothesis for our scenario!
Experimental Method: Step 2

Select participants



Example:



Eliminate any confounding variables
Use random sampling
Who could be my participants? What could be
confounding variables?
Random Assignment
Control vs. Experimental Groups

Requirement- GROUPS MUST BE THE SAME IN
EVERY WAY ASIDE FROM MANIPULATION OF
VARIABLE.
Sample me!!!
Importance of Sampling
 Sample
must be representative of the
entire population that you are studying.
 Random: Every person has an equal
chance of being selected for an
experiment.
 Representative: Researcher ensures that
the sample reflects same demographics
as the larger population
Experimental Method: Step 3
 Set
up your experiment
 What is the independent variable?
Dependent?
 Operational Definitions
Experimental Method: Step 4
 Record
results
 To avoid experimenter bias, have a
neutral person observe and score results
Experimental Method: Step 5
 Perform


an analysis
You must use statistical analysis in
experiments!
Example: There was a minor difference in
the performance of test takers after sugar
consumption, but was it statistically
significant?
Multimethod Research
 Why
not use all of the methods in one?
 You can!!!
 Observe in a naturalistic setting, interview
participants, compare events to establish
a relationship, or correlation
 Perform an experiment
So… what is each method
used for???
 Correlation….
Describing and predicting!
 Naturalistic…. Observing and describing!
 Case study….. Observing, describing, and
potentially predicting*
 Survey….. Describing!!
 Experiment….. PROVING CAUSE!!!
APA code of ethics for
research:






Participants must be informed of the nature of
research
Informed consent must be documented
Risks, adverse effects, and limitations on
confidentiality must be spelled out
If participation is required by a university for course
credit, an alternative program must be offered
No deception about aspects that would affect
willingness to participate
Deception is only allow when it is necessary to the
integrity of the research**
APA code of ethics for
research:
 No


physical or psychological harm
This includes bodily or mental stress
You cannot change the condition of the
participant irreversibly (i.e. conditioning a
behavior)
 Debriefing

Told the true objective of the experiment
 Subject

confidentiality
You may not publish names of subjects
Ethics and Psychological
Research- Determine the issue:
 Milgram
Experiment- YouTube
 Why was this seen as controversial? How
did he “hurt” participants?
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W147
ybOdgpE
 Zimbardo Experiment:
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ndBnl
j0bMFA&feature=related
Ethical concerns












Milgram:
“Teachers” were deceived
Exhibited signs of stress (sweating, lip biting)
Self-esteem was effected
Zimbardo:
Psychological Distress
Watson:
“Baby Albert”
Landis:
“Facial Expression”
Dig for frog, get a shock
Cut off the head of a rat
Ethics in research on
nonhuman subjects
 Used



for:
Comparison
Behavior principals
Studies on the brain
 PsyETA-
Ethical treatment of animals
Do Now, Day 2:
Samantha has recently become withdrawn from her friends and
is not as “happy go lucky” as she once was. Her friends jokingly
call her “Debbie Downer,” which frustrates her. Unbeknownst to
her friends, Sam’s parents have recently been divorced and her
mother will be moving, along with Sam, to New York.
This morning, while Sam was walking through the hall, a girl that
Sam has never gotten along with accidently brushed shoulders
with Sam. Sam reacted quickly and pushed the girl against the
wall, then stormed away.
The school is deciding how to punish this behavior. They decide
to bring in the school psychologist to assess the situation.
In this situation, how might the “enduring issues” of psychology be
considered when assessing Sam’s behavior and her future?
Do Now: Day 3

Describe what is going on in this picture from the
psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, and evolutionary
perspectives.
Do Now: Day 4





Henry wants to know if there is a relationship
between wealth and good grades.
Jade wants to know more about the eating
patterns of ants.
Kylie wants to prove that healthy eating
causes people to suffer from less colds.
Drake is interested in how Judy, who has
asthma, runs marathons in under 4 hours.
Highlands’ student council needs to find out
how many people use their agendas.
Consider the following:

Dr. Doom wanted to know if caffeine increases
performance on word recall. He predicted that if he gave
a group of people caffeine, their performance on word
recall would be enhanced. He selected 100 thirty to forty
year old Bergen County residents who had an IQ of 115. He
split the group in half and gave one group caffeinated
coffee and the other group decaffeinated coffee. He then
measured their performance on solving math equations.

Where in this experiment is:








The hypothesis?
Random sample?
Random assignment?
Control group?
Experimental group?
Independent variable?
Dependent variable?
Placebo?
You create an experiment:
Question: Does “Drug XYZ” reduce symptoms of
depression in teenagers?

Where in this experiment is:








The hypothesis?
Random sample?
Random assignment?
Control group?
Experimental group?
Independent variable?
Dependent variable?
Placebo?