Chapter 1
The Field of Psychology
“The purpose of psychology is to give
us a completely different idea of the
things we know best.” --unknown
Defining psychology
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Derived from the Greek word
psyche (meaning soul or mind) and
logos (meaning discourse or study).
Defined as the scientific study of
mental processes and behavior.
Behavior refers to almost any
activity, voluntary or involuntary.
Mental processes include
anything that the mind is capable
of doing.
Theories
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Theory--a general
framework for scientific
study.
Theories cover so much that
they are usually too
complicated to be directly
tested or researched.
However, smaller aspects of
them can be. When enough
of these smaller parts prove
true, the theory itself is
supported.
A theory, then, is something
like a tree, and its branches
and leaves are testable ideas
or assumptions.
Why does psychology have so
many theories?
•
•
Psychologists narrow down their
focus through the use of
perspectives (theoretical
orientation)—psychoanalytic,
cognitive, etc.
Each theoretical perspective provides
a different lens through which to
examine behavior.
Psychologists--two basic types
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Research psychologists--study the origin,
cause, and results of certain behaviors.
Applied psychologists--make direct use of the
findings of research psychologists; deal directly
with people.
Four goals of psychology
 1.
Describe Behavior
– Symptoms of schizophrenia:
delusions, hallucinations, “word
salad,” social withdrawal
 2.
Explain causes of
behavior
– Dopamine hypothesis
The Dopamine Hypothesis:
• The notion that dopamine may
be involved in schizophrenia
comes from the discovered
usefulness of drugs that block
certain dopamine receptors in
treating the disorder.
• Because dopamine-blocking
drugs are so often effective, it
has been proposed that an
over-activity of dopamine
neurotransmission in the brain
may cause schizophrenia.
• Dopamine is further implicated
by the fact that a
schizophrenia-like psychosis can
be induced by abusing
amphetamines, which act on
dopamine pathways.
DOPAMINE has been linked
to schizophrenia. In a brain
with schizophrenia, far
more dopamine
neurotransmitters are
released between neurons
than in a normal brain.
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3. Predict how
organisms will
behave in the
future
– Use knowledge of other
schizophrenic patients to
help understand the
course and development
of the disease
– Helpful in determining
inherited risk factors
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4. Control behavior
– Determining correct
treatment for the
individual so he or she
may lead a productive life
– Antipsychotic medication,
therapy
History of psychology

Before psychology became
a science, many strange
theories existed concerning
personality.
– Early people thought that
evil spirits were the cause
of abnormal behavior.
– Burning or torturing
people in various ways was
thought to be a helpful way
of driving out spirits.
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Trephination, alternately
spelled trepanation, is a
primitive surgical
technique which involved
chiseling a hole in the skull
to expose the dura matter.
It is a practice which hails
back to ancient times
when it was believed that
mental illness was caused
by the presence of
malevolent spirits within
the head.
Two heads with trephination
instruments in position, 1573.
←dura matter
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More advanced civilizations started to
look for physical causes of mental
disorders. However, their guesses
and treatments are still not considered
very “advanced” by today’s standards.
– The Greeks believed everything
(including personality) was made
up of the four elements: fire, air,
earth, and water.
– In the body, the elements were
thought to exist in the form of “four
humors”-- blood, black bile, yellow
bile, and phlegm.
Humorism--a
theory of the
makeup and
workings of the
human body
adopted by Greek
and Roman
physicians and
philosophers.
– Too much of any element was
thought to cause certain
personality characteristics.
– Thus, the Greeks thought
personality could be changed
by bloodletting--using knives
or leeches to pierce the skin
and release blood.
– The Greeks characterized
people into four personality
types:
Some other past treatments…
Shock therapy
 The spinning
chair
 The
tranquilizing
chair
 Branding irons
 “Ice pick”
lobotomy
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Phrenology
– Phrenology developed in the
1700’s--the study of the shape
of the skull. It was believed that
by “reading” the bumps on
someone’s head one could
determine their mental abilities
and personality.
– Phrenology remained popular
until the mid 1800’s.
Psychology as a science
(beginning late 1800’s)
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Charles Darwin
– In his 1859 Origins of the
Species, located humanity
within the animal kingdom,
and hence in the realm of
natural science.
– He showed that humans
could be studied
scientifically.
– Darwin also inspired
evolutionary psychology-the study of human cognition
and behavior with respect to
their evolutionary origins.
 Psychology
officially
became a science in 1879
when the first psychology
laboratory was
established.
 Psychology as the
scientific study of human
behavior is only about 130
years old!
Early theorists
 Wilhelm Wundt (1830-1890)
– German professor—the “father of
psychology”
– Wundt founded the first formal
laboratories for psychological research at
the University of Leipzig in Germany in
1879.
– Developed a theory called introspection—a
detailed examination of one’s own thinking
(looking inward).
– Showed that the human mind can be
studied in an objective, scientific manner.
– Wundt’s studies focused mostly on
perception and sensation (particularly
vision), along with reaction time,
attention, feelings, and associations.
 William
1910)
James (1842-
– Harvard professor—one of the
founders of American psychology.
– Developed a theory called
functionalism which involves the
organization of experience and
stresses that the “making sense”
out of nonsense is the mind’s
principle goal.
– Focused on how humans function
and adapt to their environment.
– Wanted to understand the
purpose of consciousness.
 Edward
1927)
Bradford Tichener (1867-
– Cornell professor—another founder of
American psychology.
– Developed a theory called structuralism
which focused on behavior as parts that
fit together in a structure—how the
physical, mental, and emotional
combine in the human consciousness
 Sigmund
Freud (1856-1939)
– Known as the “father of psychoanalysis.”
– Freud asserted we are influenced by things we
are not aware of along with our childhood
experiences.
– Best known for:
 his theories of the unconscious mind
 the defense mechanism of repression
 creating the clinical practice of psychoanalysis
 his redefinition of sexual desire as the
primary motivational energy of human life
 his therapeutic techniques, including the use
of free association
 the interpretation of dreams as sources of
insight into unconscious desires.
 Ivan
Pavlov
(1849-1936)
– A Russian
physiologist,
psychologist, and
physician.
– Pavlov is widely
known for first
describing the
phenomenon of
classical
conditioning– a
form of associative
learning.
 John
B. Watson
(1878-1958)
– John B. Watson and Rosalie
Rayner carried out the
famous “Little Albert”
study in 1920 at Johns
Hopkins University.
– This was a landmark study
because Watson was able to
prove that emotional
responses can be
conditioned, or learned.
– Pavlov and Watson’s
behavioral work led to B.F.
Skinner’s operant
conditioning experiments
ten years later.
Where are all the women?
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There were not a lot of
women in early
psychology--women were
not encouraged to pursue
higher education.
Margaret Floy
Washburn (1871-1939)
Was the first woman to be
granted a Ph.D in
psychology in 1894.
Best known for her
experimental work in
animal behavior and motor
theory development.
Approaches of Present-Day
Psychology
**EACH OF THESE
APPROACHES PROVIDES
A DIFFERENT LENS
THROUGH WHICH TO
EXAMINE BEHAVIOR
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Biopsychological
Approach
– Viewing behavior as the
result of nervous system
functions and biology.
– Advantage: understanding
biological aspects of
behavior can help in
developing treatment
options for some disorders.
– Disadvantage: does little
to explain social or
environmental influences
on behavior.
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Phineas Gage (1823-1860)
– Those taking the biopsychological
approach would be particular interested
in Phineas Gage--a man whose
behavior was shaped by physical
changes.
– He was an American railroad
construction foreman.
– He is remembered for his incredible
survival of an accident in which a large
iron rod was driven completely through
his head, destroying much of his
brain's left frontal lobe, and for that
injury's reported effects on his
personality and behavior--effects so
profound that friends saw him as "no
longer Gage."
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Psychoanalytic Approach
– A system of viewing the
individual as the product of
unconscious forces.
– Advantage: provides a
framework for analyzing
thought processes below the
conscious level.
– Disadvantage: Focuses on
how people are products of
mostly negative unconscious
forces.
– Psychologists associated with
this viewpoint: Sigmund
Freud, Carl Jung
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Behavioral Approach
– View behavior as the product
of learning and associations.
– Advantages: focuses on how
the environment affects
behavior; helps parents teach
children appropriate behavior.
– Disadvantages: disregards
the concept of “free will.”
– Psychologists associated with
this approach: Ivan Pavlov,
John Watson, B.F. Skinner
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B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
– An American psychologist, author, inventor,
and social philosopher. He was a Professor
of Psychology at Harvard University.
– Skinner invented the operant conditioning
chamber (in which the behavior of rats and
pigeons was shaped), innovated his own
philosophy of science called Radical
Behaviorism, and founded his own school
of experimental research psychology.
– Skinner asserted that human behavior is
shaped by reinforcements and
punishments.
– Reinforcements strengthen behavior,
whereas punishment has the effect of
weakening behavior.
– Skinner also argued ignoring a behavior--or
not reinforcing it--would cause a behavior
to cease (extinction).
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Tabula Rasa
– Proponents of behaviorism generally
subscribe to the tabula rasa thesis.
– Tabula rasa is the belief that individuals are
born without built-in mental content and that
their knowledge comes from experience and
perception.
– The term in Latin equates to the English
"blank slate" (which refers to writing on a
slate sheet in chalk).
– Our modern idea of this theory comes from
English philosopher and physician John
Locke. He published this idea in his piece
An Essay Concerning Human Understanding
in 1690.
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Cognitive Approach
– Emphasizes how humans
use mental processes to
handle problems or develop
certain personality
characteristics.
– Most popular approach used
today!
– Advantage: analyzes how
thoughts affect behavior.
– Disadvantage: does little to
explain social or
environmental influences on
behavior.
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Sociocultural Approach
– Behavior viewed as strongly
influenced by the rules and
expectations of specific social
groups or cultures.
– Advantage: helps
psychologists to counsel
people from different
cultures and to understand
social influences on behavior.
– Disadvantage: does not
address physiological
influences on behavior.
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Humanistic Approach
– Believing that people are basically good and
capable of helping themselves.
– Advantage: gives people power over their own
lives and behavior.
– Disadvantage: ignores role of heredity, too
good to be true (no one is good all the time).
– Psychologists associated with this approach:
Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow
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Eclectic Approach
– Borrowing from at least
two of the theories to
create one’s own
system.
– Advantage: combines
components of different
approaches to treat
clients more effectively.
– Disadvantage: can
become a jumbled and
disorganized way of
dealing with an issue in
therapy.
↑Eclecticism in
architecture
Nature vs. Nurture
The main debate in psychology today!
The main difference among the modern schools of thought
is the way in which they view human nature and what
determines it…
Nature
Heredity
Biochemistry
Inborn Qualities
Nurture
Family
Culture
Environment
Careers in Psychology
 Most
jobs in psychology require an
advanced degree--either an M.A. (2
years beyond a B.A.--which is the
degree one earns in the “normal” 4
years) or a doctorate (4-5 years
beyond a B.A.).
 The greatest proportion of
psychologists work in some type of
educational setting.
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Clinical/Counseling
Psychologists
– Work with people who have
mental or personal problems
(such as marital problems, social
difficulties, depression, eating
disorders, etc.).
– Administer psychological tests to
diagnose and administer therapy
to help patients understand
themselves and others better.
– Work in his/her own clinic, in
private clinics with other
psychologists, mental hospitals,
industry, drug rehab centers,
homeless shelters, or school
systems
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School/Educational
Psychologists
– Work with students, teachers,
or administration.
– Design and improve curriculum,
administer psychological tests
to students, design curriculum
for students with learning
disabilities, help students
socially with learning disabilities
or emotional impairments, or
work as a consultant to the
administration.
– Work primarily in K-12
education; some work in
regional centers or the medical
clinics of institutes of higher
education.
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Environmental
Psychologists
– Work with industrial designers or
personnel, or government
personnel, usually as part of a
group.
– Study the effect of the
environment on people where
they work (ex: disasters,
overcrowding, toxic materials,
etc.) and also design desirable
working conditions.
– Work in private industry or
government agencies.
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Developmental/
Child Psychologists
– Work with parents or
other caretakers of
children and directly with
children themselves who
have mental disabilities
or problems.
– Research and publish
findings on child
development; administer
IQ and other
psychological tests; work
directly with parents in
child-rearing.
– Work in clinics, private
practices, or universities.
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Industrial Psychologists
– Work with management personnel in
industry; employees who have
personal problems.
– Work with management to improve
working conditions, to obtain greater
efficiency from the work force, to
increase sales, and to keep the
company’s image positive with the
public; work with employees on any
issues they might have, from
difficult work conditions to problems
at home.
– Work in public and private industry,
usually larger companies.
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Engineering
Psychologists
– Work in private or public
industry.
– Design product or store
layouts for efficiency;
everything from studying
how to design the
instruments on an
automobile to the best
physical design for a
shopping mall.
– Work in architectural and
design firms or in public
or private industry.
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Experimental
Psychologists
– Usually work by themselves
or with a group doing
research on various topics.
– Research to understand
better how the human
operates physically or
psychologically; their goal is
to add to the literature.
– Work at universities, clinics
designed for administration
of physical and psychological
testing, laboratories.