Research Problems
Chapter 2
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Discussion Topics
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Research problems
Quantitative research problems
Qualitative research problems
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Research Problems
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One or more sentences indicating the goal,
purpose, or overall direction of the study
General characteristics
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Implies the possibility of empirical investigation
Identifies a need for the research
Provides focus
Provides a concise overview of the research
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Research Problems
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Two ways of stating the problem
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Research problems: typically a rather general overview of
the problem with just enough information about the scope
and purpose of the study to provide an initial understanding
of the research
Research statements and/or questions: more specific,
focused statements and questions that communicate in
greater detail the nature of the study
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Research Problems
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A general research problem
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The purpose of this study is to investigate the attitudes of
high school students to mandated drug testing programs
Specific statements and questions
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This study examines the differences between males’ and
females’ attitudes toward mandated high school drug testing
programs.
What are the differences between freshmen, sophomore,
junior, and senior students’ attitudes toward mandated high
school drug testing programs?
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Research Problems
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Researchable and non-researchable problems
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Researchable problems imply the possibility of empirical
investigation
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What are the achievement and social skill differences between
children attending an academically or socially oriented preschool program?
What is the relationship between teachers’ knowledge of
assessment methods and their use of them?
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Research Problems
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Researchable and non-researchable problems
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Non-researchable problems include explanations of how to
do something, vague propositions, and value-based
concerns
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Is democracy a good form of government?
Should values clarification be taught in public schools?
Can crime be prevented?
Should physical education classes be dropped from the high
school curriculum?
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Research Problems
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Quantitative problems
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Specific
Closed
Static
Outcome oriented
Use of specific variables
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Qualitative problems
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General
Open
Evolving
Process oriented
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Research Problems
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Sources of research problems
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Personal interests and experiences
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The use of formative tests in a statistics class
The use of technology in a research class
Deductions from theory
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The effectiveness of math manipulatives
The effectiveness of a mastery approach to learning
research
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Research Problems
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Sources of research problems
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Replication of studies
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Checking the findings of a major study
Checking the validity of research findings with different
subjects
Checking trends or changes over time
Checking important findings using different
methodologies
Clarification of contradictory results
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Quantitative Research Problems
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Identifies three specific elements
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The type of research design
The variables of interest and the relationships
between or among these variables
The subjects involved in the study
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Quantitative Research Problems
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Variables
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A variable is a label of name that represents a
concept or characteristic that varies (e.g., gender,
weight, achievement, attitudes toward inclusion,
etc.)
Conceptual and operational definitions of
variables
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Quantitative Research Problems
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Conceptual and operational definitions of variables
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Conceptual (i.e., constitutive) definition: the use of words or
concepts to define a variable
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Achievement: what one has learned from formal instruction
Aptitude: one’s capability for performing a particular task or skill
Operational definition: an indication of the meaning of a variable
through the specification of the manner by which it is measured,
categorized, or controlled
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A test score
Income levels above and below $45,000 per year
The use of holistic or phonetic language instruction
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Quantitative Research Problems
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Three types of variables defined by the
context within which the variable is discussed
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Independent and dependent variables
Extraneous and confounding variables
Continuous and categorical variables
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Quantitative Research Problems
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Independent and dependent (i.e., cause and effect)
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Independent variables act as the “cause” in that they
precede, influence, and predict the dependent variable
Dependent variables act as the effect in that they change as
a result of being influenced by an independent variable
Examples
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The effect of two instructional approaches (independent
variable) on student achievement (dependent variable)
The use of SAT scores (independent variable) to predict
freshman grade point averages (dependent variable)
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Quantitative Research Problems
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Extraneous and confounding variables
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Extraneous variables are those that affect the dependent
variable but are not controlled adequately by the researcher
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Not controlling for the key-boarding skills of students in a study
of computer-assisted instruction
Confounding variables are those that vary systematically
with the independent variable and exert influence of the
dependent variable
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Not using counselors with similar levels of experience in a
study comparing the effectiveness of two counseling
approaches
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Quantitative Research Problems
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Continuous and categorical variables
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Continuous variables are measured on a scale
that theoretically can take on an infinite number of
values
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Test scores range from a low of 0 to a high of 100
Attitude scales that range from very negative at 0 to very
positive at 5
Students’ ages
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Quantitative Research Problems
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Continuous and categorical variables
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Categorical variables are measured and assigned to groups
on the basis of specific characteristics
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Examples
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Gender: male and female
– Socio-economic status: low middle, and high
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The term level is used to discuss the groups or categories
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Gender has two levels - male and female
– Socio-economic status has three levels - low, middle, and high
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008
Quantitative Research Problems
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Continuous and categorical variables
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Continuous variables can be converted to categorical
variables, but categorical variables cannot be converted to
continuous variables
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IQ is a continuous variable, but the researcher can choose to
group students into three levels based on IQ scores - low is
below a score of 84, middle is between 85 and 115, and high is
above 116
Test scores are continuous, but teachers typically assign letter
grades on a ten point scale (i.e., at or below 59 is an F, 60 to
69 is a D, 70 to 79 is a C, 80-89 is a B, and 90 to 100 is an A
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Quantitative Research Problems
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Hypotheses
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Hypotheses are tentative statements of the
expected relationships between two or more
variables
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There is a significant positive relationship between selfconcept and math achievement
The class using math manipulatives will show
significantly higher levels of math achievement than the
class using a traditional algorithm approach
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Quantitative Research Problems
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Reasons for using hypotheses
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To provide specific focus
To provide for the testing of the relationships
between variables
To direct the investigation
To allow the investigator to confirm or not confirm
relationships
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Quantitative Research Problems
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Reasons for using hypotheses
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To provide a framework for reporting the results
and explanations deriving from them
When supported, provides empirical evidence of
the predictive nature of the relationships between
variables
To provide a useful framework for organizing and
summarizing the results and conclusions
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Quantitative Research Problems
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Two types of hypotheses
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Inductive and deductive
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Inductive hypotheses are formed through inductively
reasoning from many specific observations to tentative
explanations
Deductive hypotheses are formed through deductively
reasoning implications of theory
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Quantitative Research Problems
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Two types of hypotheses
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Research or statistical
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Research hypotheses are conjectural statements of the
expected results
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Directional
– Non-directional
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Statistical hypotheses are statements of a relationship or
difference that can be tested statistically
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Null hypothesis
– Alternative hypothesis
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Quantitative Research Problems
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Criteria for evaluating research hypotheses
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Stated in declarative form
Consistent with known facts, prior research, or theory
Logical extension of the research problem
States an expected relationship between two or more
variables
Can be tested
Is clear and concise
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Qualitative Research Problems
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Identifies a central phenomena (i.e., an issue or
process) being investigated
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Examples of issues
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Drug abuse in high schools
Teacher burnout
Alienation of children with special needs
Examples of processes
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How teachers change to standards-based curricula
How students react to high stakes testing programs
How students incorporate teachers’ expectations into their
studies
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Quantitative Research Problems
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Criteria for evaluating quantitative research
problems
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Problem is researchable
Problem is important
Problem should indicate the type of research
Problem specifies the population being
investigated
Problem specifies the variables and the
relationships between or among them
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Qualitative Research Problems
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Characteristics
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Includes a single, central phenomena
Open-ended
General in nature
Evolving, that is, problems change as data is collected and
reflected upon
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Foreshadowed problems
Emerging and reformulated questions
Neutral with respect to what will be learned
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No predictions
No expected outcomes
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Qualitative Research Problems
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Criteria for evaluating qualitative research problems
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The problem should not be too general or too specific
The problem should be amenable to change as data are
collected and analyzed
The problem should not be biased with restrictive
assumptions or desired findings
The problem should be written in “how” and “what” forms to
focus on describing the phenomena
The problem should include a central question as well as
the participants and the site
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