John Levasseur
Springfield Central high School
What is chemistry?
What are atoms, elements and molecules?
What are the key six elements found in living things?
What is the periodic table?
What are the similarities between carbon and silicon?
Why do the similarities between carbon and silicon exist?
Why is carbon the element of life?
What are organic molecules?
What are the four key organic molecules that make living things?
What are chloroplasts and mitochondria?
What are entities and processes and properties.
What is respiration?
What is photosynthesis?
What is the relationship between chloroplasts and mitochondria?
What is ATP?

Use the carbon atom to explain concept that form
determines function; explain why the carbon atom’s shape
determines the properties of the element carbon that allow
carbon to be the element of life.

Explain how the form of H2O determines that water is a
polar molecule. Be sure to discuss the properties that water
has because the H2O molecule is polar.

Explain how ions are formed; then explain the ionic
bonding process that makes table salt.

Describe how amino acids join together to form peptide
bonds.
Draw and describe the structure of a carbon atom;
be sure to label subatomic particles, the particles’
charges and energy levels.

Matter is composed of elements.
◦ Matter is anything that has mass and volume
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Elements are substances that consist of only one kind of
atom and cannot be decomposed into simpler substances.
There are over 90 elements occurring in nature.
◦ There are 6 elements that makes up most of, (98%) the mass of
living things.
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Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Sulfur
•What is matter?
•What are elements?
•What are atoms?
•What are the 6 key elements for life?
Smallest piece of matter that still retains properties of an
element is an atom.
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Atoms - the smallest particle of an element that has the
physical and chemical properties of that element.
Atoms are made from three types of subatomic particles.
◦ Proton positively charged and found in the nucleus
◦ Neutron no charge and found in the nucleus
◦ Electron negatively charged and found outside the nucleus in the energy
levels
Atoms must contain equal numbers of electrons and protons.
◦ If an atom gains or loses electrons it becomes an Ion.
 Positively charged ions are made when an atom loses an electron
 Positive ions an called Cations.
 Negatively charged ions are made when an atom gains an electron
 Negative ions are called Anions.
Atoms change form when they become ions.
A change in form will mean a change in function
How are ions made
from atoms?
What are anions and
cations?

The number of protons in
an atom will determine
what type of element.
◦ The atomic number of an
element is the number of
protons in that element’s
atoms’ nuclei
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Electrons are a subatomic particle
Electrons have negative charges.
Electrons are found in the outer
regions surrounding the nucleus
called energy levels also known as
energy shells.
The outermost energy level is
called the valence level.
◦ The electrons found in the valence level
is called the valence electron.
◦ The number of valence electrons
determine the chemical reactions of the
element.
◦ How an atom behaves when it
encounters other atoms is determined
by valence electrons.
•What are electrons?
•What is the valence level in an
atom?

Isotopes of Atoms
◦ Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have
different masses due to different number of
neutrons.

Examples of Isotopes:
• Hydrogen has 3 isotopes
1. Usually Hydrogen has only a proton in its nucleus
2. Hydrogen has an isotope known as Deuterium. Deuterium
has one proton and one neutron.
3. Hydrogen has another isotope known as Tritium. Tritium
has one proton and two neutrons.
•What are isotopes?
•What happens to an
atom if the proton
numbers changes?
•What happens to an
atom if the neutron
number changes?
•What are elemental symbols?
•What is the atomic number?
•What is the mass number?
•Name the six elements above.
•State the number of protons, neutrons
and electrons in an atom of each.

Chemical Reactions
◦ A chemical reaction is a process where one or
more substances are transformed into one or
more different substance.
 Chemical reactions do not destroy or create
matter
 Chemicals reactions rearrange atoms from one
compound into another.
◦ 2H2 + O2  2H2O
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Covalent Bonds
◦ When atoms are bonded together by sharing
electrons in the atoms’ valence energy level a
covalent bond is formed;
 Covalent bonds are made between elements
that are nonmetals

Ionic Bonds
◦ When ions are attracted toward each other
due to opposite charges, electrostatic
attraction, a bond is formed called an ionic
bond’
 Ionic bonds are formed between ions of metal
elements, (+ charged) and ions of non-metal
elements (- charged)
•What is a chemical reaction?
•What are covalent and ionic bonds?
•What is the law in science that matter
is not created nor destroyed?
Watch this Animation
The form of water molecules
determines the function and properties
of water.
Water is a polar molecule; which means
that one side of the molecule attracts
more electrons, (or negative charges).
Attracting more electrons to the
oxygen side of the molecule
means that water has a slight
negative charge on the oxygen
side and a slight positive charge
on the hydrogen side.
Water is a polar molecule because of
its shape.
Water has a slightly positive
charge on the H2 side.
H2O has a slightly negative
charge on the O side.
Why is water a polar
molecule?
Different shape
Different properties

Water’s two key properties:
◦ Adhesion and Cohesion

Adhesion: water sticks to charged
entities
◦ Water has adhesion because H2O is a
polar molecule

Cohesion: water molecules stick to
other water molecules
◦ Water has cohesion because H2O is a
polar molecule
Watch this animation
•Explain why water is a
polar molecule.
•What is adhesion?
•Why will water adhere
to charged surfaces?
•What is cohesion?
Cohesion
We often see molecules modeled in different ways so that we can
better understand the form of molecules, which in turn allows us to
understand the properties of molecules.
Some of the common
modeling types of
molecules.
•Molecular Formula
•Skeletal
•Ball and Stick
• Lewis Dot Structures
• Structural Formula
Carbon is the element of life;
what is the role of carbon in
organisms?
•Carbon is element number
6 on the Periodic Table.
• Carbon has 6 protons and
6 electrons
• Carbon has 4 electrons in
its valence (outermost)
energy level.
• Organic Molecules are Molecules Made with
the Element Carbon.
• Carbon is a Very Special Element for Life;
Carbon Atoms Hold Together the Organic
Molecules That Living Things Are Made From.
• There Are Four key Organic Molecules to
Know:
•Carbohydrates,
•Proteins,
Why is carbon
•Lipids
so special?
•Nucleic Acids.
The Reasons why carbon is the Element of Life.
Carbon has a special ability to form covalent bonds because of the form
of the carbon atom
• A carbon atom becomes stable when it forms four covalent bonds
and fills the valence level.
• Carbon atoms can form covalent bonds with other atoms.
• Carbon bonds with other elements’ atom.
• Carbon bonds with other carbon atom
Carbon atoms can form multiple
bonds (that are very strong) with
other carbon atoms.
• Single carbon-carbon bond
• Double carbon-carbon
bonds
• Triple carbon-carbon bonds
What types of bonds can a carbon
atom form with other carbon
atoms?
Why are these bonds important?
Carbon atoms can form multiple bonds (that are very strong) with other
carbon atoms
Carbon atoms bonded together can make different shapes (forms).
Here are examples of the different forms:
• Straight Chains
• Branched Chain
• Rings
Since carbon based organic
molecules can be arranged
into seemingly endless
numbers of forms, organic
molecules can perform
seemingly endless numbers
of functions.
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We now know that form determines function.

We also know that organic molecules are those molecules that
have a carbon backbone and are found in living things.
◦ This concept holds true a all the levels of scale
◦ These organic molecules make the structures and perform the chemical
reactions of organisms

Each organic molecule group has small molecules (monomers)
that are linked to form a larger organic molecule
(macromolecule).
◦ Monomers can be joined together to form polymers that are the large
macromolecules made of three to millions of monomer subunits.
◦ Sections of these monomers have distinct forms that give the molecule
certain functions
 These sections of molecules are called functional groups .
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Functional groups are clusters of atoms with characteristic
structure and functions.
The specific molecular structures of many organic molecules are
due to specific arrangements of atoms into functional groups.
These functional groups give molecules their distinctive chemical
properties.
What 6 elements do you expect to see in the common functional
groups?
We need to remember to consider the levels of scale when we're discussing
life's chemistry:
• Subatomic particles- Protons,
Macromolecules
neutrons and electrons
• Atoms- the smallest particle of
defined elemental matter.
Subunits
• Functional groups- groups of atoms
bonded together within a molecule
that allow the molecule to perform
some particular function.
Molecules
• Molecule- Atoms joined together by
covalent bonds.
•Subunit, (monomer)- molecules that
Functional Group
can be joined together to form large
polymers.
•Macromolecule, (polymer)- Large
Atoms
molecules made by joining smaller
molecules
Subatomic Particles
Monomer
Polymer
Monosaccharides
Carbohydrate
• As you know there are four key Organic Molecules to Know:
•Carbohydrates,
•Proteins,
•Lipids
•Nucleic Acids.
• These four organic molecules are large molecules, (polymers) made
by joining smaller molecules, (monomers).
• These
four large
molecules
are known as macromolecules or
Glycerol
and
Fatty
polymers; the smaller molecules that make them up are known as
subunits
or monomers.
Acid
Chains
Lipids
Amino Acids
Proteins
Nucleotides
Nucleic Acids
Watch this Animation
Advanced Animation
• Carbohydrates are used by cells to store and release energy. Energy is
stored in the carbon bonds.
• Carbohydrates are also used as structural components of plants and
insects.
• Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen, in a ration of 1 carbon : 2 hydrogen : 1 oxygen.
•The basic formula for carbohydrates is : (CH2O)n.
• Carbohydrates are broken into 3 groups:
•monosaccharides,
• disaccharides,
• polysaccharides
• Carbohydrates are macromolecules made by
joining simple sugars, (momosaccharides)
together.
• Monosacharides are simple single sugars.
• Key monosaccharides include:
• glucose (C6H12O6),
• fructose (same formula but different
structure than glucose).
•ribose (C5H10O5), (an important part of
nucleic acids)
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Disaccharides:
Two Monosaccharides joined by a condensation
reaction, (AKA. Dehydration Synthesis)
◦ Example of a disaccharide: sucrose
◦ Sucrose is table sugar (C12H22O11)
◦ Sucrose’s chemical formula once again shows how
glucose (C6H12O6) and fructose (C6H12O6) are joined
by the condensation of a water (H2O) molecule. .
 C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 -->C12H22O11 + H2O
An Animation on Condensation and Hydrolysis
•Explain a
condensation
reaction, aka
dehydration
synthesis.
•What is a
Disaccharide?

Polysaccharides:
◦ Polysaccharides are polymers of many
monosaccharide monomers joined by condensation
reactions.
 Examples of polysaccharides: starch, glycogen, and
cellulose.
 Starch is a polymer of many glucose molecules used as energy
storage in plants.
 Glycogen is a polysaccharide of glucose monomers that stores
energy for bacteria, fungus, and animals.
 Humans and other vertebrates store glycogen in their liver.
 Cellulose is a polysaccharide of glucose monomers that plants use
for structure.
•What form of carbohydrate is
energy storage for plants?
•What form of carbohydrate is
energy storage for fungi and
animals?
•Lipids: are organic macromolecules that have a large proportion of
carbon to hydrogen bonds with less oxygen.
•Example: lipid in beef C57H110O6.
• Lipids are more commonly known as fats, waxes, and oils.
• Lipids are insoluble in water. Lipids do not form solutions in water.
• Lipids are non-polar molecules. This means there is no side of the
molecule with a positive or negative charge. The molecule is perfectly
balanced.
•Remember water (H2O) is a polar molecule and water will attach
to any charged particle.
•It is this capability of water that allows solutions to form.
• Since lipids are non-polar (have no charge) H2O molecules
cannot adhere to lipids.
Why are lipids insoluble
in water?
What is the ration
relationship between C,
H, and O in lipids?
•). Lipids are used in cells for energy storage, insulation, and
protective coating (to reduce H2O loss
• We will learn how lipids make up the cell membrane.
Phosphlipid bilayer
• Lipids are macromolecules made of two simpler molecules:
glycerol and fatty acids.
• Steroids have glycerol with one fatty acid chain.
• Phospolipids have a phosphate group attached to a glycerol
with two fatty acid chains.
• Triglycerides have a glycerol with three fatty acid chains.
Molecular structure of triglycerol.
• Steroids (and other hormones) are lipids.

Proteins: are large complex polymers composed of smaller
monomers, (simpler molecules) known as amino acids.
◦ Amino acids are composed of the elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, and sulfur.
◦ There are 20 amino acids.
 In humans there are 9 essential amino acids that the body cannot make and must
take in with diet.
 In humans, there are 11 non-essential amino acids that a healthy body makes,
 Conditionally essential amino acids are the 6 nonessential amino acids that the
body may not be able to make due to illness or poor nutrition and then must be
obtained through diet.

The 20 amino acids can form millions of different
combinations to form millions of different proteins.
Amino acids have two distinctive functional groups:

The structure of a generalized amino acid:

◦ amino group (NH2)
◦ carboxyl group (COOH).
•What are amino acids?
•What are the functional groups of
amino acids?
•How many amino acids make up all the
proteins?

The covalent bonds that join amino acids are called peptide bonds
◦ Proteins are also known as polypeptides.
Where are the amino
groups?
Where are the carboxyl
groups?
Amino Acid Condensation Reaction
How is the peptide bond
formed?
• Proteins play many roles and perform many functions in living
organisms.
• Proteins are often used as structural components of organisms.
•The coats of viruses are bacteria are made of protein.
• Muscle tissue is protein and lipids.
• Other uses of proteins:
•Transporting oxygen in the blood
•Providing immunity
•Regulating other proteins
•Regulating chemical reactions (this is the job of enzymes).
•Enzymes
•Enzymes are proteins that change the rate of chemical reactions
•Enzymes are involved in nearly all metabolic processes.
•Enzymes are like a lock and key to regulate chemical reactions.
No surprise, the shape of
enzymes allow them to
be catalysts for chemical
reactions in living things.
Enzymes are chemical catalysts.
Catalysts are substances usually
used in small amounts relative
to the reactants, that modifies
and increases the rate of a
reaction without being
consumed in the process.
• Protein Structure:
Watch this
Animation
• Proteins are the “work horses” of
organic molecules. Proteins perform
countless functions in living things.
•Think of the innumerable chemical
reactions that enzymes catalyze.
• Proteins must have the ability to
organize the 20 amino acids into
countless shapes.
• There are four levels to the
structure of proteins:
• Primary
•Secondary
•Tertiary
•Quaternary
Watch this Animation
Enzyme Specificity Animation
MA Framework Question: Explain the role of enzymes as catalysts that lower the activation energy
of biochemical reactions. Identify factors, such as pH and temperature, that have an effect on enzymes.
• Remember: enzymes are chemical
catalysts that make chemical
reactions happen faster or slower.
• Note how an enzyme’s shape allows
it to perform this function
• Enzyme activity is influenced by
several factors. Environmental
conditions, such as pH, temperature,
or salt concentration may change the
three dimensional shape of an enzyme,
altering its rate of activity and/or its
ability to bind the substrate.
Watch this Animation
• Chemical reactions often
require an input of energy to get
the reaction started.
• Many enzymes function by
lowering the activation energy of
reactions. By bringing the
reactants closer together,
chemical bonds may be weakened
and reactions will proceed faster
than without the catalyst.
Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides joined together to make large
macromolecules. The important nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic
acid(DNA) and various types of ribonucleic acids(RNA).
Nucleotides are monomers consisting of a phosphate group, a five carbon
sugar(either ribose or deoxyribose) and a one or two ring nitrogen
containing base.
Nucleotides are important for several reasons. First the genetic material
(DNA) is a polymer of four different nucleotides. The genetic information is
coded in the sequence of nucleotides in a DNA molecule. Polymers of
nucleotides such as DNA and the several types of RNA in the body are
called nucleic acids.
Nucleotides and related compounds are also important energy carrying
compounds. Among the ones commonly encountered are ATP, and NADH.
The four nucleotides that make
the DNA molecule
The Functions of Nucleic Acids
• The primary function of nucleic acids is to store and transmit genetic
information.
• Other functions of Nucleic Acids include:
•Transport of amino acids
•Energy storage and release
The Central Dogma of Biology
• DNA is Replicated into more DNA
• DNA is Transcribed into RNA
• RNA is Translated into Proteins
•ATP is the chemical energy
that cells actually use.
•ATP is produced when
organisms release the energy in
carbohydrates and lipids.
•ATP release energy and breaks
down into ADP as cells require
energy.
See this animation
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) & Ribonucleic Acid
• DNA, (Deoxyribonucleic acid), is
the molecule of heredity.
•Genes are sections of a long
DNA molecule that encode the
directions for one protein.
•Genes are coded messages
of how, when and where to
make proteins.
• The information stored in DNA's
chemical code is transcribed into RNA.
•RNA delivers the DNA's
information to the site of protein
synthesis
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) - Nature's Energy Store
•All living things require a continual supply of energy in order to function.
•Cells require energy for all the processes which keep the organism alive.
•Examples of cell processes that require energy:
•Synthesis of organic molecules
•Active transport of molecules and other cell nutrients
•The molecule adenosine triphosphate, (ATP) is the nucleic acid that is the
currency of energy in cells .
•ATP works by releasing the endmost phosphate group when catalyzed by
an enzyme. This reaction releases energy.
•The reaction’s product is adenosine diphosphate (ADP), and the extra
phosphate functional group as well as the energy.
http://student.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit6/metabolism/energy/adpan.html
What are atoms, ions, elements and molecules?
What makes carbon the element of life?
What are the key six elements found in living things?
Where can you find carbon on the periodic table?
How many electrons can carbon share?
What are single, double and triple bonds?
What are the basic shapes that carbon molecules can make?
What are the four basic organic molecules for life
What is a macromolecule or a polymer?
What is a subunit or monomer?
What is a functional group?
What are the four key organic molecules’ subunits?
What are the three types of carbohydrates?
What type of reaction joins monomers into polymers?
What functions can lipids perform?
What key functional groups are found in amino acids?
What is the function of enzymes?
What is the central dogma of biology?
What are the functions of nucleic acids?
Choose
and
answer 7
questions