Bacon essentially proposed the Modern
“Scientific” Method in his book Novum
Organum (New Instrument) that to
interpret nature one should proceed
through inductive reasoning. One should
proceed from fact to axiom and then on
to physical law.
Bacon essentially proposed the Modern
“Scientific” Method in his book Novum
Organum (New Instrument) that to
interpret nature one should proceed
through inductive reasoning. One should
proceed from fact to axiom and then on
to physical law.
A disinterested approach by developing
a hypothesis to explain an observation
and so arrive at a Law of Nature
Bacon essentially proposed the Modern
“Scientific” Method in his book Novum
Organum (New Instrument) that to
interpret nature one should proceed
through inductive reasoning. One should
proceed from fact to axiom and then on
to physical law.
A disinterested approach by developing
a hypothesis to explain an observation
and so arrive at a Law of Nature
Basically one should bend
backwards
not
to
accept
preconceived idea.
over
any
Natural Philosophy
This simple inductive recipe
fact → axiom → physical law
Natural Philosophy
This simple inductive recipe
fact → axiom → physical law
has had two enormous revolutionary
consequences for society:
Natural Philosophy
This simple inductive recipe
fact → axiom → physical law
has had two enormous revolutionary
consequences for society:
It resulted in the Enlightenment
and
Science and Technology
Natural Philosophy
This simple inductive recipe
fact → axiom → physical law
has had two enormous revolutionary
consequences for society:
It resulted in the Enlightenment
and
Science and Technology
Indeed our modern democratic and
technologically advanced world
Francis Bacon is the father of the scientific
method, which is fundamental to natural
philosophy. In his magnum opus, Novum
Organum, or "new instrument", Francis Bacon
argued that although philosophy at the time
mainly used deductive syllogisms to interpret
nature, mainly owing to Aristotle's logic (or
Organon), the philosopher should instead
proceed through inductive reasoning from fact
to axiom to physical law.
Before beginning this induction, the enquirer is to free his or her mind from certain
false notions or tendencies which distort the truth. These are called "Idols" (idola),[31]
and are of four kinds:
"Idols of the Tribe" (idola tribus), which are common to the race;
"Idols of the Den" (idola specus), which are peculiar to the individual;
"Idols of the Marketplace" (idola fori), coming from the misuse of language; and
"Idols of the Theatre" (idola theatri), which result from an abuse of authority.
The end of induction is the discovery of forms, the ways in which natural phenomena
occur, the causes from which they proceed.
Bacon explicated his somewhat fragmentary ethical system – derived through use of
his methods – in the seventh and eighth books of his De augmentis scientiarum
(1623) – where he distinguished between duty to the community (an ethical matter)
and duty to God (a religious matter). Bacon claimed that:
Any moral action is the action of the human will, which is governed by belief and
spurred on by the passions;
Good habit is what aids men in directing their will toward the good; and
No universal rules can be made, as both situations and men's characters differ.
Francis Bacon
Francis Bacon is the father of the scientific method, which is fundamental to natural philosophy. In his magnum opus, Novum Organum, or "new instrument", Francis Bacon argued that
although philosophy at the time mainly used deductive syllogisms to interpret nature, mainly owing to Aristotle's logic (or Organon), the philosopher should instead proceed through inductive
reasoning from fact to axiom to physical law. Before beginning this induction, the enquirer is to free his or her mind from certain false notions or tendencies which distort the truth. These are
called "Idols" (idola),[31] and are of four kinds:
"Idols of the Tribe" (idola tribus), which are common to the race;
"Idols of the Den" (idola specus), which are peculiar to the individual;
"Idols of the Marketplace" (idola fori), coming from the misuse of language; and
"Idols of the Theatre" (idola theatri), which result from an abuse of authority.
The end of induction is the discovery of forms, the ways in which natural phenomena occur, the causes from which they proceed.
Bacon explicated his somewhat fragmentary ethical system – derived through use of his methods – in the seventh and eighth books of his De augmentis scientiarum (1623) – where he
distinguished between duty to the community (an ethical matter) and duty to God (a religious matter). Bacon claimed that:
Any moral action is the action of the human will, which is governed by belief and spurred on by the passions;
Good habit is what aids men in directing their will toward the good; and
No universal rules can be made, as both situations and men's characters differ.
Francis Bacon
Regarding faith, in De augmentis, he wrote that "the more discordant, therefore, and incredible, the divine mystery is, the more honour is shown to God in believing it, and the nobler is the
victory of faith." He wrote in "The Essays: Of Atheism" that "a little philosophy inclineth man’s mind to atheism; but depth in philosophy bringeth men’s minds about to religion." Meanwhile in
the very next essay called: "Of Superstition" Bacon remarks- "Atheism leaves a man to sense, to philosophy, to natural piety, to laws, to reputation: all which may be guides to an outward
moral virtue... but superstition dismounts all these and erecteth an absolute monarchy in the minds of men: therefore atheism never did perturb states; for it makes men wary of
themeselves... and we see the times inclined to atheism (as the time of Augustus Caesar) were civil times; but superstition hath been the confusion of many states, and bringeth in a new
'primum mobile.' that ravisheth all the spheres of government." [32] However, Bacon did maintain his own Christian beliefs, of which he differentiated from "superstition". [citation needed] Bacon
notes that “It is better to have no opinion of God at all, than such an opinion as is unworthy of him: for the one is unbelief the other is contumely; and certainly superstition is the reproach of
the Deity.”[33] Yet even more than this, Bacon's views of God are in accordance with popular protestant theology, as he writes that “They that deny a God destroy man's nobility; for certainly
man is of kin to the beasts in his body; and, if he be not of kin to God by his spirit, he is a base and ignoble creature.” [33]
Nevertheless, Bacon contrasted the new approach of the development of science with that of the Middle Ages:
"Men have sought to make a world from their own conception and to draw from their own minds all the material which they employed, but if, instead of doing so, they had consulted
experience and observation, they would have the facts and not opinions to reason about, and might have ultimately arrived at the knowledge of the laws which govern the material world."
Since Bacon's ideal was widespread revolution of the common method of scientific inquiry, there had to be some way by which his method could become widespread. His solution was to
lobby the state to make natural philosophy a matter of greater importance – not only to fund it, but also to regulate it. While in office under Queen Elizabeth, he even advocated for the
employment of a Minister for Science and Technology; a position which was never realised. Later under King James, Bacon wrote in The Advancement of Learning: "The King should take
order for the collecting and perfecting of a Natural and Experimental History, true and severe (unencumbered with literature and book-learning), such as philosophy may be built upon, so
that philosophy and the sciences may no longer float in air, but rest on the solid foundation of experience of every kind." [34]
While Bacon was a strong advocate for state involvement in scientific inquiry, he also felt that his general method should be applied directly to the functioning of the state as well. For Bacon,
matters of policy were inseparable from philosophy and science. Bacon recognised the repetitive nature of history, and sought to correct it by making the future direction of government more
rational. In order to make future civil history more linear and achieve real progress, he felt that methods of the past and experiences of the present should be examined together in order to
determine the best ways by which to go about civil discourse. Bacon began one particular address to the house of Commons with a reference to the book of Jeremiah: "Stand in the ancient
ways, but look also into present experience in order to see whether in the light of this experience ancient ways are right. If they are found to be so, walk in them." In short, he wanted his
method of progress building on progress in natural philosophy to be integrated into England's political theory. [35]
Bacon's works include his Essays, as well as the Colours of Good and Evil and the Meditationes Sacrae, all published in 1597. (His famous aphorism, "knowledge is power", is found in the
Meditations.[36]) He published Of the Proficience and Advancement of Learning, Divine and Human in 1605. Bacon also wrote In felicem memoriam Elizabethae, a eulogy for the queen
written in 1609; and various philosophical works which constitute the fragmentary and incomplete Instauratio magna (Great Renewal), the most important part of which is the Novum
Organum (New Instrument, published 1620); in this work he cites three world-changing inventions:
"Printing, gunpowder and the compass: These three have changed the whole face and state of things throughout the world; the first in literature, the second in warfare, the third in
navigation; whence have followed innumerable changes, in so much that no empire, no sect, no star seems to have exerted greater power and influence in human affairs than these
mechanical discoveries."[37]
Peter Linebaugh and Marcus Rediker have argued that Bacon was not as idealistic as his utopian works suggest, rather that he was what might today be considered an advocate of
genocidal eugenics. A year prior to the release of New Atlantis, Bacon published an essay that reveals a version of himself not often seen in history. This essay, a lesser-known work
entitled, An Advertisement Touching a Holy War, advocated the elimination of detrimental societal elements by the English and compared this to the endeavours of Hercules while
establishing civilised society in ancient Greece. He saw the "extirpation and debellating of giants, monsters, and foreign tyrants, not only as lawful, but as meritorious, even divine
honour..."[38]
Peter Linebaugh and Marcus Rediker have argued that Bacon was not as idealistic as his utopian works suggest, rather that he was what might today be considered an advocate of
genocidal eugenics. A year prior to the release of New Atlantis, Bacon published an essay that reveals a version of himself not often seen in history. This essay, a lesser-known work
entitled, An Advertisement Touching a Holy War, advocated the elimination of detrimental societal elements by the English and compared this to the endeavours of Hercules while
establishing civilised society in ancient Greece. He saw the "extirpation and debellating of giants, monsters, and foreign tyrants, not only as lawful, but as meritorious, even divine
honour..."[38]
Laurence Lampert has interpreted Bacon's treatise An Advertisement Touching a Holy War as advocating "spiritual warfare against the spiritual rulers of European civilisation." [39]
[edit] Bacon's Utopia
Main article: New Atlantis
In 1623, Bacon expressed his aspirations and ideals in New Atlantis. Released in 1627, this was his creation of an ideal land where "generosity and enlightenment, dignity and splendor,
piety and public spirit" were the commonly held qualities of the inhabitants of Bensalem. In this work, he portrayed a vision of the future of human discovery and knowledge. The plan and
organisation of his ideal college, "Salomon's House", envisioned the modern research university in both applied and pure science. There has been much speculation as to whether a real
island society inspired Bacon's utopia. Scholars have suggested numerous countries, from Iceland to Japan; Dr. Nick Lambert highlighted the latter in The View Beyond.[40]
[edit] Baconian method
Main article: Baconian method
The Novum Organum is a philosophical work by Francis Bacon published in 1620. The title is a reference to Aristotle's work Organon, which was his treatise on logic and syllogism. In
Novum Organum, Bacon detailed a new system of logic he believed to be superior to the old ways of syllogism. In this work, we see the development of the Baconian method, consisting of
procedures for isolating the formal cause of a phenomenon (heat, for example) through eliminative induction.
[edit] Influence
Bacon's ideas were influential in the 1630s and 1650s among scholars, in particular Sir Thomas Browne, who in his encyclopaedia Pseudodoxia Epidemica (1646–1672) frequently adheres
to a Baconian approach to his scientific enquiries. During the Restoration, Bacon was commonly invoked as a guiding spirit of the Royal Society founded under Charles II in 1660.[41][42] In the
nineteenth century his emphasis on induction was revived and developed by William Whewell, among others.[43]
[edit] North America
Some scholars[who?] believe that Bacon's vision for a Utopian New World in North America was laid out in his novel New Atlantis, which depicts a mythical island, Bensalem, located
somewhere between Peru and Japan. He envisioned a land where there would be greater rights for women, [citation needed] the abolition of slavery, elimination of debtors' prisons, separation of
church and state, and freedom of religious and political expression.[44][45][46][47] Francis Bacon played a leading role in creating the British colonies, especially in Virginia, the Carolinas, and
Newfoundland in northeastern Canada. He has been connected to the mysterious Oak Island buried treasure.[citation needed][dubious – discuss] His government report on “The Virginia Colony” was
submitted in 1609. In 1610 Bacon and his associates received a charter from the king to form the Tresurer and the Companye of Adventurers and planter of the Cittye of london and Bristoll
for the Collonye or plantacon in Newfoundland[48] and sent John Guy to found a colony there. In 1910 Newfoundland issued a postage stamp to commemorate Bacon's role in establishing
the province. The stamp describes Bacon as, "the guiding spirit in Colonization Schemes in 1610."[15] Thomas Jefferson, the third President of the United States wrote: "Bacon, Locke and
Newton. I consider them as the three greatest men that have ever lived, without any exception, and as having laid the foundation of those superstructures which have been raised in the
Physical and Moral sciences".[49]
[edit] Historical debates
[edit] Bacon and Shakespeare
Main articles: Baconian theory and Bacon's cipher
The Baconian theory of Shakespearean authorship, first proposed in the mid-19th century, contends that Sir Francis Bacon wrote the plays conventionally attributed to William Shakespeare,
in opposition to the scholarly consensus that William Shakespeare of Stratford was the author.
[edit] Occult theories
Main article: Occult theories about Francis Bacon
Francis Bacon often gathered with the men at Gray's Inn to discuss politics and philosophy, and to try out various theatrical scenes that he admitted writing.[50] Bacon's alleged connection to
the Rosicrucians and the Freemasons has been widely discussed by authors and scholars in many books. [51] However others, including Daphne du Maurier (in her biography of Bacon), have
argued there is no substantive evidence to support claims of involvement with the Rosicrucians. [52] Frances Yates[53] does not make the claim that Bacon was a Rosicrucian, but presents
evidence that he was nevertheless involved in some of the more closed intellectual movements of his day. She argues that Bacon's movement for the advancement of learning was closely
connected with the German Rosicrucian movement, while Bacon's New Atlantis portrays a land ruled by Rosicrucians. He apparently saw his own movement for the advancement of learning
to be in conformity with Rosicrucian ideals.[54]
Francis Bacon's influence can also be seen on a variety of religious and spiritual authors, and on groups that have utilised his writings in their own belief systems.[55][56][57][58][59
Bacon did not propose an actual philosophy, but
rather a method of developing philosophy. In his
magnum opus, Novum Organum, he argued that
although philosophy at the time used the deductive
syllogism to interpret nature, the philosopher
should instead proceed through inductive
reasoning from fact to axiom to physical law.
Before beginning this induction, the inquirer is to
free his or her mind from certain false notions or
tendencies which distort the truth. These are called
"Idols" (idola),[28] and are of four kinds:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Bacon
Bacon did not propose an actual philosophy, but
rather a method of developing philosophy. In his
magnum opus, Novum Organum, he argued that
although philosophy at the time used the deductive
syllogism to interpret nature, the philosopher
should instead proceed through inductive
reasoning from fact to axiom to physical law.
Before beginning this induction, the inquirer is to
free his or her mind from certain false notions or
tendencies which distort the truth. These are called
"Idols" (idola),[28] and are of four kinds:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Bacon
Basically, in his most important work “Novum
Organum”, Bacon proposed the inductive
approach to scientific methodology: A disinterested
approach by developing a hypothesis to explain an
observation and so arrive at a Law of Nature
Hypothesis
Hypothesis
Observation
Hypothesis
Observation
Confirmation
Hypothesis
Observation
Confirmation
Theory
Hypothesis
Deductive
Reasoning
Observation
Confirmation
Theory
Hypothesis
Deductive
Reasoning
Observation
Confirmation
Theory
Observation
Hypothesis
Deductive
Reasoning
Observation
Confirmation
Theory
Hypothesis
Observation
Hypothesis
Deductive
Reasoning
Observation
Confirmation
Theory
Further Test
Hypothesis
Observation
Hypothesis
Deductive
Reasoning
Observation
Confirmation
Theory
Law
Further Test
Hypothesis
Observation
Hypothesis
Deductive
Reasoning
Observation
Confirmation
Top Down approach
Theory
Law
Further Test
Hypothesis
Observation
Hypothesis
Deductive
Reasoning
Observation
Confirmation
Top Down approach
Theory
Law
Further Test
Hypothesis
Observation
Inductive
Reasoning
Hypothesis
Deductive
Reasoning
Observation
Confirmation
Top Down approach
Theory
Law
Further Test
Inductive
Reasoning
Hypothesis
Bottom up approach
Observation
Deduction & Induction
Deductive and Inductive Thinking
In logic, we often refer to the two broad methods of reasoning as the deductive and inductive
approaches.
Deductive reasoning works from the more general to the more specific. Sometimes this is
informally called a "top-down" approach. We might begin with thinking up a theory about our
topic of interest. We then narrow that down into more specific hypotheses that we can test. We
narrow down even further when we collect observations to address the hypotheses. This
ultimately leads us to be able to test the hypotheses with specific data -- a confirmation (or not)
of our original theories.
Inductive reasoning works the other way, moving from specific observations to broader
generalizations and theories. Informally, we sometimes call this a "bottom up" approach (please
note that it's "bottom up" and not "bottoms up" which is the kind of thing the bartender says to
customers when he's trying to close for the night!). In inductive reasoning, we begin with
specific observations and measures, begin to detect patterns and regularities, formulate some
tentative hypotheses that we can explore, and finally end up developing some general
conclusions or theories.
These two methods of reasoning have a very different "feel" to them when you're conducting
research. Inductive reasoning, by its very nature, is more open-ended and exploratory,
especially at the beginning. Deductive reasoning is more narrow in nature and is concerned
with testing or confirming hypotheses. Even though a particular study may look like it's purely
deductive (e.g., an experiment designed to test the hypothesized effects of some treatment on
some outcome), most social research involves both inductive and deductive reasoning
processes at some time in the project. In fact, it doesn't take a rocket scientist to see that we
could assemble the two graphs above into a single circular one that continually cycles from
theories down to observations and back up again to theories. Even in the most constrained
experiment, the researchers may observe patterns in the data that lead them to develop new
theories.
Hypothesis
Observation
Confirmation
Theory
Law
Further Test
Hypothesis
Observation