The research process,
surveys, questionnaires &
interviews
Communication Research
Week 3
Steps in the research process






1) Establish the need for research
2) Define the problem
3) Establish research objectives
4) Determine research design
5) Identify information types and sources
6) Determine methods of accessing data
Communication Research Spring 2005
2
Steps in the research process





7) Design data collection forms
8) Determine sample plan and size
9) Collect data
10) Analyse data
11) Prepare final research report
Communication Research Spring 2005
3
The research process
DETAILS OF STUDY
Purpose of
the study
Types of
investigation
Exploration
Establishing:
Causal
relationships
Correlations
Group differences,
ranks etc
Description
Hypothesis
Extent of
researcher
interference
Minimal: Studying
events as they
normally occur
MEASUREMENT
Study
setting
Contrived
Non
contrived
Manipulation
and/or control
and/or simulation
Measurement
& measures
Operational defn
Items (measure)
Scaling
Categorising
Coding
Data-analysis
Unit of
analysis (pop
to be studied)
Individuals
Dyads
Groups
Organisations
Machines
Sampling
design
Time
Horizon
Probability/
non
probability
One-shot
(crosssectional)
Sample
size (n)
Longitudinal
1.Feel
Data-collection
method
for data
Observation
2.Goodness
Interview
of data
Questionnaire
3. Hypothesis
Physical
measurement
testing
Unobtrusive
Communication Research Spring 2005
4
The Classical Ideal of Science
Induction
Theories
Deduction
Generalization
Hypotheses
Method &
measurement
Operationalization
Observation
Communication Research Spring 2005
5
Deductive vs Inductive Reasoning



DEDUCTIVE
Argues from the general
to the particular
Eg you observe that all
deciduous trees lose
their leaves …
You therefore reason that
your bare tree is
deciduous



INDUCTIVE
Argues from the
particular to the general
Eg if you burn one finger
on a hot stove …
You therefore reason that
you could burn all of
them
Communication Research Spring 2005
6
Preparing an hypothesis or
research question



An hypothesis is a ‘reasonable scientific
proposal’ or a ‘statement of expected results’
It is not a statement of fact but a declarative
statement which tells the reader what you are
going to do NOT how you plan to do it
An hypothesis is common to scientific research
methodologies while qualitative research more
commonly uses research questions to focus
Communication Research Spring 2005
7
Writing a hypothesis

A well written hypothesis





Is stated in declarative form
Posits a relationship between variables
Reflects a theory or body of literature upon
which it is based
Is brief and to the point
Is testable
Communication Research Spring 2005
8
Developing an hypothesis

An hypothesis should be developed from a wellresearched body of knowledge which is both
logical and feasible eg



Inland waterways are becoming polluted through fuel
discharge from petrol-driven powerboats
Powerboats are noisy thus creating auditory pollution
Alternatives to petrol engines exist
 Electric (battery-powered) boats will decrease pollution on
inland waterways
Communication Research Spring 2005
9
Ideas, questions & hypotheses
Research Interest or
Ideas
Research Problem or
Questions
Hypothesis
Open classroom and
academic success
What is the effect of open vs
traditional classrooms on reading
level?
Children taught reading in open classroom
settings will read at a higher grade level than
children taught reading in a traditional
setting.
Test-taking skills and
grades
Will students who how to “take” a
test improve their scores?
Students who receive training in the “Here
Today – Gone Tomorrow” method will score
higher on the SATs than students who do not
receive the training.
Television and
consumer behaviour
How does watching television
affect buying behaviour of
adolescents?
Adolescent boys buy more of the products
advertised on television than do adolescent
girls.
Drug abuse and child
abuse
Is drug abuse related to child
abuse?
There is a positive relationship between drug
abuse among adults and their physical and
psychological abuse as children
Adult care
How have many adults adjusted to
the responsibility of caring for their
aged parents?
The number of children who are caring for
their parents in the child’s own home has
increased over the past ten years.
Communication Research Spring 2005
10
Rats & scientific research
Communication Research Spring 2005
11
Problems with asking questions as
evidence
(from Vance Packard (1956) The Hidden Persuaders)

1. You can’t assume that people know what they want
 In a survey of male drinkers the men expressed a
strong preference for a ‘nice dry beer’. When they
were then asked how a beer could be dry, they were
stumped.Those able to offer any answers at all
revealed widely different notions.
Communication Research Spring 2005
12
Problems with asking questions
as evidence
(from Vance Packard (1956) The Hidden Persuaders)

2. You can’t assume people will tell you the truth about
their wants and dislikes even they know them.
 Psychologists at the McCann-Erikson ad agency
asked a sampling of people why they didn’t buy one
client’s product – kippered herring.The main reason the
people gave under direct questioning was that they just
didn’t like the taste of kippers. More persistent probing
however uncovered the fact that 40% of the people
who said they didn’t like kippers had never in their
entire lives tasted kippers.
Communication Research Spring 2005
13
Problems with asking questions
as evidence
(from Vance Packard (1956) The Hidden Persuaders)

3. It is dangerous to assume that people can be trusted to
behave in a rational way.
 A test was designed to establish the influence of the
package on the product. It gave housewives three different
boxes filled with detergent and requested that they try them
all out for a few weeks and then report which was the best
for delicate clothing (Note: actually only the boxes were
different, the detergents were identical – one box was
predominantly yellow; the second was blue and the third was
blue with splashes of yellow).
 Result: the detergent in the yellow box was too strong, in
the blue box it left the clothes dirty and in the blue and yellow
it was ‘fine’ and ‘wonderful’.
Communication Research Spring 2005
14
Survey research
 Purpose is to determine the current
status of a population with respect to
one or more variables
 Can be qualitative or quantitative,
depending on data sought
Communication Research Spring 2005
15
Advantages of surveys





Inexpensive
Can obtain current information
Enable the researcher to obtain a great deal of
information at one time
Provide quantitative or numerical data
Very common and so some of the info you seek
may have already been gathered eg ABS
Communication Research Spring 2005
16
Problems with surveys






People often don’t tell the truth, especially
about personal matters
People make mistakes about what they’ve
done
Obtaining representative samples is frequently
difficult
People often refuse to participate
Relatively small percentages of people answer
and return questionnaires
Writing good survey questions is difficult
Communication Research Spring 2005
17
Self-administered
questionnaires




ADVANTAGES
Inexpensive
No interviewer bias to worry
about
You can ask about very
personal matters
You can ask complex, detailed
questions




DISADVANTAGES
People may misinterpret
questions
Low response rates the norm
You don’t know who actually
filled out the questionnaire
Sampling errors frequent
Communication Research Spring 2005
18
Stages of a survey

1. Define your information needs




what information?
purpose of information?
who knows the answers?
practical issues eg time

2. Carry out background research – what work has been done
before in this area?

3. Choose a survey technique




questionnaires
diaries
individual interviews
group discussions
Communication Research Spring 2005
19
Stages of a survey

4. Define and test your methodology





5. Administer your survey – consider any problems




Open or closed questions?
Pre-test questions
Ordering of questions
Trial questioning techniques
By mail/email
Is target group representative?
Were all questions answered satisfactorily?
6. Analyse your results



Did enough people reply?
Is target group representative?
Were all questions answered satisfactorily?
Communication Research Spring 2005
20
Stages of a survey

7. Present your findings

Usually in report format

Outline parameters of survey critically

Do your results prove or imply results?

Acknowledge limitations eg time, sample size,
demographics of sample etc
Communication Research Spring 2005
21
Problems with Survey Research
 Inadequate response
 Including unrelated items on questionnaire
 Poorly worded items
 Complex items
 Leading questions
 Assuming facts not necessarily in
evidence
 Analysing open-ended questions
Communication Research Spring 2005
22
Problems with Survey Research




People often don’t tell the truth about
themselves
People make mistakes even if they are
trying to tell the truth eg ratings books
Obtaining representative samples is
difficult
Relatively small percentage of people
answer and return questionnaires
Communication Research Spring 2005
23
Survey & Questionnaire design



When designing a survey or questionnaire you
need to consider the type of question which will
give you the most accurate data
There are five main types of questions
1. Close-ended questions which use yes/no
responses
Q. I have good communications with my supervisor
A.  Yes
 No
Communication Research Spring 2005
24
Survey & Questionnaire design

2. Open-ended questions which allow the
respondents to give an unlimited answer
Q. What problems are you having with your supervisor?
Communication Research Spring 2005
25
Survey & Questionnaire design

3. Checklist which present a list of items where
participants are asked to check those items that
apply to their particular situation.
Q. Please check the following types of communications that you
have with your supervisor.
 Informal meetings
 After hours discussions
 Formal meetings
 Telephone
 Written reports
 Social gatherings
 Emails
 Committee meetings
Communication Research Spring 2005
26
Survey & Questionnaire design

4. Multiple-choice questions which offer several
choices and the respondent is asked to select
the most correct one. Ensure the choices
presented cover all the possible options.
Q. How often do you purchase items from the company vending
machines?
a) Once a day
b) 2-3 times a day
c) 3-5 times a day
d) 6 or more times a day
Communication Research Spring 2005
27
Survey & Questionnaire design

5. Ranking scales which require the participants
to rank order a list of items.
Q. Of the following list of five types of communication that you
might have with your supervisor, rank from 1 (most
important) to 5 (least important).
— Formal meetings
— Informal conversations
— Written reports
— Letters or emails
— Telephone discussions
Communication Research Spring 2005
28
Survey & Questionnaire design

6. Likert scales which usually measure attitude toward a
concept or idea. It allows the respondent to indicate the
degree of agreement usually on a 5 or 7 point scale.
Q. Please indicate the degree to which you agree or disagree with this
statement. “The 1995 Ford Falcon is a substantial improvement on the
1994 model.”
Strongly agree
Agree Neither agree
Disagree
Strongly
nor disagree
Disagree
5
4
3
Communication Research Spring 2005
2
1
29
Survey & Questionnaire design

7. Semantic differential scales measures attitudes by displaying
pairs of opposite terms and asking respondents to check which
term best describes their feeling toward the concept or topic.
Q. Place an X in the space between the two terms that best describes how you see
the XYZ Corporation Office.
XYZ CORPORATION DISTRICT OFFICE
[the topic or entity being evaluated]
Pleasant - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - Unpleasant
Efficient - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - Inefficient
Not helpful - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - Helpful
Professional - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - Unprofessional
Insensitive - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - Sensitive
Friendly - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - Unfriendly
Slow
- - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - Fast
Rigid - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - Flexible
Communication Research Spring 2005
30
Other types of qualitative
research – depth interviews


one-on-one interview which is relatively
unstructured with a subject by a trained
interviewer.
The direction of the interview is guided
by the responses to the questions
Communication Research Spring 2005
31
Other types of qualitative research
– personal interviews






ADVANTAGES
Interviewer can explain Qs in
detail
Interviewer can use a variety of
data collection methods
Interviewer can spend a lot of
time with respondents
You know who is answering the
questions
A higher likelihood of achieving
the desired response rate
Not intimidating






DISADVANTAGES
Can be intrusive (too personal)
Time-consuming and expensive
Hard to find people in sample at
times
People are reluctant to answer
some questions
Needs well-trained interviewers
Possible language barriers
Communication Research Spring 2005
32
Other types of qualitative
research – focus groups



Often used in market research
A group is asked a series of structured
questions and guided through
structured sessions
Designed to probe their attitudes and
feelings about a range of issues
Communication Research Spring 2005
33
Other types of qualitative
research – projection techniques



Such as word association tests, sentence and
story completion, cartoon tests, consumer
drawings, photo sorts
These techniques belong to the field of
clinical psychology
They are designed to probe and penetrate a
person’s defense mechanisms and allow true
feelings to emerge
Communication Research Spring 2005
34
Communication Research Spring 2005
35