Research Tools and Techniques
The Research Process: Step 6
(Research Design – Elements
3,4, 6 and 8)
Lecture 12
Lecture Topics Covered Previously in the
Last Lecture
• Four Types of Research According to the Purpose
of Study
• Type of Investigation: Causal Versus Correlational
What we are going to Cover in this
Lecture
• Extent of Researcher Interference
• Study Setting: Contrived Vs. Non Contrived
• Unit of Analysis
• Time Horizon of Study
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
(1).
Observation
The Broad
Problem Area
(3).
(4).
Theoretical
Framework
Problem
Definition
Variables
Identification
(5)
(6).
Scientific
Research
Design
Generation
of
Hypothesis
(2).
Preliminary
Data
Gathering
Interviews
and Library
Search
(7).
Data
Collection
and
Analysis
(8)
Deduction
(9).
(10).
(11).
Report
Writing
Report
Presentation
Managerial
Decision
Making
THE ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN
1. Purpose of
Study
•Exploratory
•Descriptive
•Hypothesis
Testing
•Case Study
2. Type of
Investigation
Establishing:
Causal
Relationship
or
Co-relational
3. Extent of
Researcher
Interference
•Minimal
•Moderate
•Excessive
4. Study Setting
•Contrived
•Non-Contrived
5.
Measurement
& Measures
•Operational
Definition
•Scaling
•Categorizing
•Coding
10. Test
Application
Feel for
Data
Goodness
of Data
6.Unit of Analysis
(Population to be
studied)
Individuals
Dyads
Groups
Organizations
Machines
etc.
8. Time Horizon
7. Sampling
Design
Probability
Non-probability
Sample Size (n)
One-Shot
(Cross-Sectional)
or
Longitudinal
9. Data
Collection
Method
Observation
Interview
Questionnaire
Physical
Measurement
Hypotheses
Testing
EXTENT OF RESEARCHER INTERFERENCE
Correlational study  natural environment
(Minimum interference)
•
Causal study  researcher manipulates independent variable and
controls exogenous variables i.e. effects of penicillin on mice etc.
1.
Minimal interference:
A hospital administrator
Emotional support nurses receive  stress level
Days off
2.
Moderate interference:
More emotional support causes  lesser stress level
Ward 1: lady doctors, male staff and ayyas
Ward 2: lady doctors
Ward 3: no caring staff
3.
Excessive interference:
Three wards are created with same level of stress
•
STUDY SETTING: CONTRIVED/NONCONTRIVED
NATURAL ENVIRONMENTNON CONTRIVED
a.
FIELD STUDY
b.
FIELD EXPERIMENT
c.
LAB EXPERIMENT
Urea
Plant Growth
UNIT OF ANALYSIS
• The unit of analysis refers to the level of aggregation of the
data collected during the subsequent data analysis stage
• Our research question determines the unit of analysis
S INDIVIDUAL S DYADS S GROUPS
S DIVISIONS S INDUSTRY
S COUNTRIES
Individual as Unit of Analysis
Level of Motivation
Productivity/hour
Ali
9
20
Asim
9
21
Farhan
8
19
Uzma
7
16
Majeed
8
18
Arshad
6
10
Aftab
4
5
Sohail
9
22
Effan
7
15
Dyads as Unit of Analysis
Husband’s Wife’s
Choice
Choice
Mean
Toy
Bought?
Pair 1
7
6
6.5
No
Pair 2
9
9
9
Yes
Pair 3
4
10
7
Yes
Pair 4
10
10
10
Yes
Pair 5
5
4
4.5
No
Groups as Unit of Analysis
Productivity
Group 1(Night Shift)
Group 2 (Morning Shift)
3.4
2.8
6.7
4.3
5.6
Mean=4.56
3.3
4.7
6.3
6.6
6.2
Mean=5.42
t-value = 2.87
Summary
• Extent of Researcher Interference
• Study Setting: Contrived Vs. Non Contrived
• Unit of Analysis
• Time Horizon of Study