Chapter 8
Educational Media
1. INTRODUCTION
Audio-visual (AV) aids, or instructional aids, or audio-visual media, communication
technology, educational or instructional media, and learning resources are synonymous
terms. Earlier, the term used was audio-visual aids; with the advancement in the means
of communication and that of technology, educators coined these new terms. The use of
newer terms “educational technology” or “instructional technology” is primarily due to
the dynamic expansion of programmed learning, computer assisted instruction (CAI)
and educational television. Research effectiveness of AV aids in teaching–learning has
been researched extensively and findings suggest that learning is directly proportional
to the number of senses which are stimulated with the help of AV aids during teaching–
learning process.
If I hear I forget, I see I remember, I do I learn
—Chinese proverb
Ninety percent of information going to the brain is through the eyes, eight percent of
information is through the ears and two percent of information is through other senses.
This educational technology of AV aids evolved a century back when chalk with talk was
the only visual aid. The inventions of projectors, liquid crystal displays (LCD) and
computer has revolutionized the use of AV aids in educational setting.
Once writing is equal to ten times reading; once teaching is equal to ten
times writings
—Unknown
2. DEFINITION OF AV AIDS
AV aids can be defined as stimulating material and devices which aid sound and sight in
teaching to facilitate learning of the students by activating more than one sensory
channel. It helps to improve the quality of teaching by making study material more
interesting and concrete to the learners.
These are educational material which are used in classroom instruction, directed at the
senses of hearing as well as sight of the learner (films, recordings, photographs, etc.) to
enhance learning by increasing the attention span and interest of the learner.
AV aids are “all material used in the classroom or in other teaching
situations, to facilitate the understanding of the written or spoken words”
—Dent
“Audio visual aids are those devices by the use of which communication of
ideas between persons and groups in various teaching and training
situations is helped”
—Edgar Dale
“Audio visual aids are any device which can be used to make the learning
experience more concrete, more realistic and more dynamic”
—Kinder S. James
“Audio visual aids are those sensory objects or images which initiate or
stimulate and reinforce learning”
—Burton
3. PURPOSES OF AV AIDS
Use of AV aids serves some important purposes in teaching–learning process which are
as follows.
o
Clear images: clear images are formed when we see, hear, touch, taste and smell as our
experiences are direct, concrete and more or less permanent.
o
Antidote to the disease of verbal instructions: they help to reduce verbalism. They help in
giving clear concepts, and thus help to bring accuracy in learning.
o
Vicarious experience: it has always been seen that the first-hand experience is the best type of
educative experience. However, sometimess it is neither practicable nor desirable to provide
such experience to pupils. Substituted experiences with the help of AV aids may be provided
under such conditions.
o
Variety: more chalk or talk does not help. AV aids give variety and provide different tools to the
teacher.
o
Retentive: they contribute to increase receptivity as they stimulate the response of the whole
organism to the situation in which learning takes place.
o
Based on maxims of teaching: it enables the teacher to follow the maxims of teaching like
“concrete to abstract”, “known to unknown” and “learning by doing”.
o
Helpful in attracting attention: it helps the teacher in providing proper environment for
teaching and learning.
o
Conservation of energy and time: it saves a good deal of energy and time of both the teachers
and students as most of the concepts and phenomena can be easily classified, understood and
assimilated with the help of AV aids.
o
Realism: it provides a touch of reality to the learning situation.
o
Spread of education on a mass scale: it helps in providing opportunities for education to people
living in remote areas, and thus helpful in promoting adult education.
o
Encouragement to healthy classroom interaction: it encourages healthy classroom interaction
for effective realization of teaching–learning objectives.
o
Promotion of scientific temper: it helps the students to observe demonstration and
phenomenon, and thus cultivate scientific temper among them.
o
Positive transfer of learning and training: it helps in the learning and solving of real-life
problems by making possible and appropriate positive transfer of learning.
o
Reinforcement to learner: it proves effective reinforcement by increasing the probability of reoccurrence of the response associated with them, and thus helps in the teaching–learning
process.
o
Best motivators: they are best motivators. The students work with more interest and zeal and
are more attentive.
4. PRINCIPLES OF AV AIDS
While using AV aids in the classroom, certain principles should be kept in mind to
enhance its effectiveness to facilitate learning.
o
The teacher should be well prepared with the particular AV aid which he or she is supposed to
use with a particular lesson. For example, if a teacher is supposed to use transparency as an AV
aid then he should prepare it in advance, systematically arrange the transparencies in order
and keep it ready to use in the classroom.
o
Check in advance whether the slide/LCD/filmstrip projector is available in the classroom and
is functioning.
o
Make sure that technical support is available whenever required.
o
Selection of the AV aid should be as per the requirement of the content to be presented to the
students.
o
Make sure that every student is able to see or hear the AV aid without any difficulty.
o
AV aid should be prepared as per the prevailing guidelines for that particular aid and it should
be attractive enough to draw the students’ attention.
o
As far as possible, students should be involved in preparation and preservation of AV aids.
o
AV aid should be economical.
o
Principle of stimulus variation and feedback reinforcement should also be considered while
preparing and selecting an AV aid.
5. KEY CONCEPTS IN THE SELECTION AND USE OF MEDIA
Selection and use of media or AV aids should not be a haphazard process; rather, it
should be a systematically well-planned process so that, a suitable media for a particular
group of students as per the learning objectives can be selected and used.
The teacher should think judiciously while planning their lesson about the use of media.
There are a number of factors which should be considered simultaneously while making
a selection for the appropriate AV aid. Some important factors which can guide a
teacher through the process of selection and use of media in education are as follows.
5.1. Learning Objectives
Learning objectives are the key areas which determine the suitability and applicability of
a particular AV aid. Select the AV aid from the all available options that can be helpful to
deliver lesson contents to achieve the desired learning objectives.
For example, if one presenting results of research findings they would have traditionally
used radio or television or chalk board. In this situation they would have to use
PowerPoint slides to graphically depict their findings as it will better serve the
objectives. Therefore, objectives should not be tailored to the media; rather, objectives
should guide media utilization.
5.2. Size and Nature of the Group
The size of group is another important factor that influences selection of media. For
example, for a small size class of 10–30 students charts can be used effectively, but for a
large group (50–100 students) charts will not be visible to all students and, you will
have to choose either transparency or PowerPoint slides with an amplifier to augment
your voice. Beside the size of group, a teacher has to consider the nature of the audience,
in terms of age, sex, socio-cultural background, motivation and the physical abilities or
disabilities, which have considerable impact in media selection.
It is better to know in advance the size of the group to whom you are planning to teach.
If you are teaching a group routinely then you may know its size advance, but the
problem arises when you are assigned to teach a class of external students.
Communicate with the class coordinator and know the number of students present in
the assigned class.
5.3. Availability of Resources
Nursing colleges are resource-limited in India, hence nursing faculty has to explore the
available resources in the college while planning and preparing for instructional aids. In
a resource-limited setting, you cannot prepare and plan to use costly media. It is always
better to choose an economical media whenever possible.
5.4. Technical Support
If you are planning to use technically sophisticated media, then make sure that technical
support is available whenever required. It is better to avoid technically sophisticated
media (film strip projector, LCD projector, Data projector) if you are not well acquainted
with the technology of that particular media or when technical support is not readily
available.
5.5. Know your Expertise in Preparation on Media
For example, after considering the factor listed earlier, you realize that transparency and
PowerPoint slides are two available options which can be used to teach a particular
content to a group. Eavaluate both options and choose the one on which you or your
students can prepare the content more skillfully and creatively. In some situations you
may also consider commercially available AV aids.
5.6. Media Characteristics
During selection and use of media, preference should be given to those AV aids which
can be stored and retrieved, provided that the selected media is not compromising the
learning objectives and students’ attention. Another media characteristic of significance
is the physical qualities of the media, which includes the attributes, authenticity and
significance of the content.
5.7. Electricity
Availability of electricity becomes an important consideration before selecting a media
that requires the use of electricity (e.g., transparency, LCD projector, etc.); therefore,
you will have to ensure that there is uninterrupted supply of electricity in the classroom
or else have an alternative media ready to use in case of electricity failure.
5.8. Learner's Response
Media utilization should focus on learners’ response through discussion, project,
dramatization, and so on.
5.9. Legal Consideration
Legal aspects should be considered in the production and the utilization of educational
communication media and this is particularly important where AV materials are
prepared by the teacher. It is always advisable to obtain permission in writing to avoid
possible legal involvement.
5.10. Other Concepts
Stimulus variation, feedback, reinforcement and learner participation are some other
concepts that should be considered.
6. TEACHER’S ROLE IN PROCURING AND MANAGING INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS
The teacher has to play a key role in storage, borrowing, retrieval and monitoring of the
use of AV aids. At the college level, a nursing faculty can manage these aids in AV aids
room which is an essential part of a college of nursing as per Indian nursing council
norms.
Models and charts can be permanently installed on the walls in the particular classroom
in which they are supposed to be used; for example, anatomical models charts can be
placed in first-year classroom. Similarly, models of pelvis and fetus can be placed in
final-year B. Sc classroom.
Figure 8.1 Characteristics of Good AV Aid
Those AV aids which are fragile and costly should be kept under lock. TV, LCD projector
and overhead projector can be installed permanently in each classroom depending on
the number of devices available in a college.
The teacher has to involve the students in preparation of the AV aids. It will enhance
their creativity; imagination, critical thinking as well as help them learn the concerned
study material while preparing these teaching aids. The teacher should act as a guide
and facilitator in the development and use of AV aids by the students.
Evaluation of the AV education program should be made at regular intervals and budget
appropriation should be made regularly for the program.
AV aids can be borrowed or purchased from outside agencies, if available. The teacher
has to be knowledgeable about these agencies and departments. Some of the sources of
AV aids are as follows.
o
Educational agencies (NCERT).
o
Professional organizations.
o
Non-governmental organizations.
o
Voluntary organizations.
o
Commercial producers (Pearson Publication, Lippincott's Ovid SP etc.).
7. TYPES OF AV AIDS
AV aids can be categorized into three broad categories, that is, audio aids, visual aids
and audio-visual aids. These categories can be further classified as listed in Table 8.1.
TABLE 8.1 Classification of Educational Media
7.1. Visual Aids (Non-Projected)
7.1.1. Blackboard or Green Board
The blackboard or green board is the commonest and oldest visual aid used for teaching.
It is so commonly used that it has become a compulsory part of a classroom. A
blackboard can augment the lecture- cum-discussion teaching method. It can serve as
an effective visual aid if used properly and systematically. Guidelines for the effective
use of blackboard in a classroom are as follows.
o
Make sure that board is clean before starting the class; erase any material as it will distract the
students.
o
Divide the board into two equal halves and start writing from the first half of the board; when it
is full, continue writing on the second half; when the second half of the board is full, then erase
the first half and so on (see Figure 8.2). This writing and erasing sequence will not interrupt
the students from taking notes from the blackboard.
o
Write only the key points that make the skeleton of your lesson. Don’t overcrowd the board
with too much written content on it.
o
Develop the concepts of your lesson on the board as you progress through your lesson.
o
The size of the written letters on the blackboard should be large enough so that every student
can read it. Ensure their legibility from the last row before the lecture.
o
Use white or yellow color chalk for writing on the board as other colors may not be clearly
visible to the back-row students.
o
It is better to write in bold letters because thin letters are difficult to read.
o
Use sufficient pressure while writing on board.
o
Avoid writing on those areas of the board which may not be visible to all students, such as the
sides and the bottom of the board.
o
Switch on the light above the board to ensure good visibility of the board. Avoid direct glare on
the board.
o
Avoid speaking while writing on the board.
o
Use colored chalks to highlight or differentiate.
o
Stand clear of the written word.
o
Don’t show your back for a prolonged time while writing on the blackboard.
o
Clean it completely after the class is over.
Figure 8.2 Proper Use of Blackboard
Advantages of the Blackboard
1.
Easy to use.
2. Electricity is not a necessity for its usage.
3. Cheap and readily available in most of the classrooms.
Disadvantages of the Blackboard
1.
Requires good calligraphy skills to use it effectively.
2. The written material cannot be stored and reused.
3. If good quality chalk is not used it may make your clothes and hands dirty.
7.1.2. Flannel Board
A flannel board is simply a board covered with flannel which is a soft cloth that is made
of cotton or wool. Flannel board can be used as a visual aid as it facilitates placement of
shapes, symbols, and cutouts on it. It helps the students in comprehension by its
attractiveness and stimulating material presented on it, also it brings out creativity and
interest among students. It can serve as an effective visual aid for smaller group of
students.
The board is covered with felt or heavy flannel that will provide a background base for
cutouts or shapes. Black and light-blue colors are considered to be better for flannel
board.
Cut-outs or shapes should be created with the material that can adhere to the board
easily. Attaching some pieces of sandpaper to the back of the cut-outs of paper will
ensure good adherence to the board. Students should be instructed to avoid glue while
displaying cut-outs on the flannel board. A flannel board provides an opportunity for
original, colorful, eye-catching displays.
Advantages
1.
Provides a scope for creativity and originality.
2. Students are more attracted and learn the content on the board with interest.
3. Contents of the board can be preserved for a long time and can be reused.
Disadvantages
1.
It is time consuming to prepare the content to be displayed on the flannel board.
2. Materials have to be adapted to make it useful for flannel board.
7.1.3. Bulletin Board
It is the board on which current news, study material and quizzes etc., can be displayed
by the students (Figure 8.3). It is a visual aid which stimulates the students to prepare
and display interesting learning material for the class. It provides a unique teaching–
learning experience to the students and results in active learning as students are
responsible for preparing and displaying the learning material on the board. The teacher
must delegate the responsibility to the head student to regularly check and maintain the
bulletin board. A teacher can also use it in a classroom to display illustration, steps of a
process, photographs, newspaper cuttings relevant to the lesson content and any other
creative work to enhance student learning.
Figure 8.3 Bulletin Board
Guidelines for Effective Use of Bulletin Board
o
A bulletin board should be installed at a well-lit place.
o
Neutral color should be used as background color of the bulletin board.
o
It should not be over crowded, else it will lose its attractiveness.
o
Items should be displayed creatively, systematically and logically which will create an appeal
and attract attention of the students.
o
A suitable title should be given to each group of items placed on the board.
o
Replace the items after a period of time with newer ones.
Advantages
o
Cheap and effective visual aid, if used properly.
o
Material displayed on the board can be stored in files and reused whenever required.
o
Stimulates the student to search for or prepare creative work to display on board.
o
Useful aid to display various announcements and classroom rules.
7.1.4. Flash Cards
Flash card, as the name indicates, is a card which is made of hard or compact paper of
varying size on which brief content or illustration is displayed. A series of cards are
sequentially arranged and flashed one by one for a few seconds in front of a small group
of students to depict a concept or step of process or list of clinical manifestations of a
disease, which attracts the students’ attention and enriches their learning experience.
The teacher should hold the card on the chest or use a folding case to show the card one
by one to the students while making sure that each student is able to see the card. The
teacher should provide running commentary of the content while showing the card. Ten
to twelve cards for one talk can be used. The messages on the card should be simple and
brief line drawings or photographs, etc. In nursing education flash cards are frequently
used in the clinical setting during case presentation, drug presentation or during
planned health teaching. However, it can also be used in classroom teaching, provided
that the size of the group is small.
Advantages of Flash Cards
o
Easy to prepare and use.
o
Portable, so can be used whenever required.
o
Effective aid to teach a complex process.
Disadvantages
o
Cannot be used for larger group of students because the size of card is not large enough to be
seen by all students.
o
Time consuming to prepare the cards.
7.1.5. Flip Chart
It is made of compact sheets or large pads of papers which may include picture maps,
cartoons, handmade diagrams and photographs, etc. A flip chart is used as a visual aid
in which information is provided in sequence with the help of clipped compact sheets
which are arranged in sequence, and each paper sheet is flipped up after it has been
shown to students.
7.1.6. Poster
Posters are a widely used visual aid to communicate messages to the mass. A poster
should be dramatic to attract attention of the target group with any prominent or central
feature standing out sharply. You might have seen posters of pulse polio program; can
you recall what the message in that poster was? Was it too long or too short? It was a
short easily communicable message “do boond zindagi ki”. It is noteworthy that many
students wrongly consider poster and chart as synonyms. Posters are usually used for
communication with very large groups and the message on it is short and crisp while
charts rae used for small groups with slightly more content written in technically
complex language on it.
A poster is usually prepared on a very large size tuff sheet and is displayed at a well-lit
place where most of the students or the target group can see it. A lot of creativity and
imagination is required to prepare a good poster. It is better to have a few trials before
finalizing the layout of the poster. Background and the color combination should be
impressive and attractive with a clear and concise message written on it. Jargons,
technical and sophisticated words should be avoided in the message or text of the
poster.
One picture is worth a thousand words: Chinese Proverb
Advantages
o
Effective mean to communicate with large groups of people.
o
Attracts attention of the audience.
o
Does not require detailed study of the topic to prepare a good poster.
o
Relatively cheap and easy to use.
Disadvantages
o
It does not communicate enough information.
o
May become ineffective when it becomes part of the routine environment.
o
Time consuming and requires a lot of creative work and imagination to prepare a good poster.
7.1.7. Charts
Charts are an effective and simple visual aid frequently used by nursing students and
teachers to explain steps of a process, a concept or for comparison of two contrasting
ideas that are too complex to explain in words alone.
Similarly, a teacher can draw some pictorial on a chart to facilitate learning of a difficult
concept. The one difference between a chart and a poster is that while using the chart,
the teacher has to explain the content which is written or drawn on it in technical
language; in contrast, in the poster the message is clear and concise and self
explanatory.
Guideline to Prepare Charts
o
Select a good quality chart of appropriate size (20″ × 30″ or 30″ × 40″) and type (table chart,
wall chart, flow chart) as per the requirement.
o
Give a clear and concise heading to the chart which describes what the chart is meant to depict.
For example, “Clinical manifestations of congestive heart failure”, “Pathophysiology of MI”.
The heading should be written in sufficiently large size letters that is eye-catching.
o
Prepare a dark or light background as per your requirement and accordingly select the color of
text and other material which will be presented on the chart.
o
Use imagination and creativity to provide good color combinations in the chart while depicting
contents or pictorial material. Contents should be arranged systematically.
o
Do not use a number of different color shades unless it is a must.
o
Enhance the esthetic look of the chart by systematically presenting information on it.
o
Display the chart at a well-lit place and at appropriate height and distance from where students
can see it easily.
Advantages
o
Easy to prepare and handle.
o
It is portable, therefore can be used in any setting for a small group of students.
o
It is not costly, hence can be used widely to explain comparison, process, and sequence of
events.
o
Can be reused when required.
o
Easy to store.
Disadvantages
o
Useful to teach only small group of students, not for large groups.
o
May not attract students’ attention if it is not carefully planned, designed and is jumbled with
information.
7.1.8. Graphs
Graphs are visual aids that are most commonly used to present statistical data as well as
the trends of certain characteristics. Undergraduate and postgraduate nursing students
use this aid to present their research findings before research committees. There are
certain types of graphs that can be used to depict a group of data.
Pie Graph
It is also known as circle diagram. The data are presented thorough the sections of a
circle. The total frequencies or value is equated to 360 degrees and then the angles for
the corresponding components are calculated. After determining their angle, the
required sectors are drawn in the circle (Figure 8.4).
Figure 8.4 Pie Chart Showing Percentage Distribution of Students in Various Nursing
Programs in Punjab
Bar Graph
Horizontal or vertical bars are used to represent the data in this type of graph. Before
constructing bars, scale is prepared according to the type of data, which determines the
length of bars. Equal spacing is necessary between two consecutive bars. There is a wide
variety of types of bar graphs which you can explore in Microsoft excel utility (Figure
8.5).
Figure 8.5 Bar Graph Representing Prevalence of Obstructed Sleep Apnea (OSA) in
CHF Versus Control Group
Line Graph
Line graphs are used to show trends or relationship between two or more variables.
Quantitative data are plotted as dots in between horizontal and vertical axis and the dots
are connected with a line which makes a curve (Figure 8.6).
Figure 8.6 Line Graph of Rank Order of First 10 Risk Factors of Fall Among Older
Persons
Pictorial Graph
In this type of graph pictures are used to express a given idea. They are more attractive
and easily understood.
Figure 8.7 Doughnut Graph Showing Percentage of Students in Various Nursing
Programs in Punjab
7.1.9. Cartoon
A cartoon is humorous caricature which gives an obvious message indirectly. It involves
the features of objects and people which are embroidered along with some general
symbols. The drawing in a cartoon should be simple and easily understandable. The
symbols used should be familiar and represent a concept or idea to which students can
react intellectually.
7.2. Visual Aid (Three Dimensional)
7.2.1. Objects
An object is a three-dimensional visual aid. It is a sample of a real thing, which is visible
and tangible to the students. For example, a syringe, thermometer, Swan–Ganz catheter
and stethoscope are objects.
The object can be used as a real visual teaching aid to explain the various parts or the
structure and its proper use. Students become excited and attentive when they see the
sample of a real thing, which leads to permanent learning about the focused instrument,
item or material. Sometimes, it is difficult to present the real object in the classroom
because of some constraining factors, for example, the object is costly, inaccessible and
fragile. In this situation it is better to use areplica instead of the real object.
o
Replica: It is the exact copy of the real object. The size, shape and feel of the replica are the
same as the real object. For example, fetus dummy, pelvis, skeleton system, etc.
o
Facsimile: It is the same as a fax. It is the true copy or duplicate of the written or printed
document.
7.2.2. Dioramas
A diorama is a three-dimensional arrangement of an object, like cut outs or models, to
illustrate a central idea, theme or concept. These objects and models are arranged in a
show case which is like a big box with a glass covering and background printed with a
shade or a scene.
It is an effective AV aid to teach the appearance of actual things which are impossible to
bring to the class room. It also provides opportunity to show live things in the
classroom, e.g., an aquarium. The major disadvantage of dioramas is that it is costly to
prepare and sometimes it may communicate false information to the students if it is not
a replica of the actual thing.
7.2.3. Specimen
A specimen is a three-dimensional visual aid which is most commonly used in teaching
of anatomy, zoology and botany. It is a representative of the whole thing. For example, a
specimen of human lung or heart is representative of all human lungs or hearts in terms
of structure and function, hence can be used for the study of the human lung or heart.
Likewise, a handful of black gram or rice or wheat is representative of their grain species
and can be used for the study of the same.
Advantages
o
Specimens provide first-hand information to the students, hence they are an effective visual aid
widely used in study of anatomy.
Disadvantages
o
Very costly teaching aid as it requires organ donation to get a specimen in an anatomy lab.
o
Difficult and costly to preserve and store the specimen.
7.2.4. Models
Models are three-dimensional (height, width and depth) visual aids which are not same
in size, shape or function of the real object. Although models are not the same in size
and shape or other physical parameters to the real objects, still they imitate the real
object, and hence can be used as effective visual aids. Models are more creative and
attractive, and therefore catch the eye of the students easily.
In nursing sciences models are most frequently used to teach the physical setup of an
institution, for example, water sanitation plant, hospital, cath lab etc., or to teach
structures of various body organs, for example, model of heart, lung, kidney etc., or to
teach a procedure, for example, model of three-bottle water-seal drainage system.
Advantages
o
It is a useful visual aid for small as well as large group sizes.
o
Models can be used to reduce very large objects and enlarge very small objects to a size that can
be conveniently observed by the students.
o
It can be helpful to teach anatomy, nursing procedures and physical setup of various
departments in a hospital.
o
Help to stimulate reality when it is not possible to access the real object or replica.
o
Models are useful for demonstrating the interior structures of objects or systems with a clarity
that is often not possible with two-dimensional representations.
o
Models can be stored and reused whenever required.
Disadvantages
o
Can convey wrong information to the students if not prepared carefully.
o
Costly and time consuming to prepare good models.
o
Require a lot of space and caution to store the model.
7.2.5. Puppets
Puppets have been used as a visual aid for teaching in India and China for the last 4000
years. Puppets are an inanimate object used in the art of puppetry, popularly known as
“Kathputli” in India. It is a three-dimensional AV aid usually made of wood but any
other material can be also be used to prepare it. A puppet enacts a particular character
in a puppetry show, which can be planned to teach some principles, attitude toward
specific health-related issues like HIV/AIDS and contraception in specific communities.
History of nursing and changing trends in nursing education can also be taught with the
use of puppets. It requires a well-written script to make the teaching effective and
interesting. Students learn by viewing the performance of the puppets during the show
as well as by making the puppets, and acting as puppeteers.
Puppets can be of various types; for example, hand/glove puppet, string puppet, rod
puppet, shadow puppet. String puppets are very popular in north-west part of India
while rod and shadow puppets are common in southern India.
Advantages
o
Students learn by doing (making puppets, script writing, and organizing puppet shows).
o
Puppets can be stored and reused.
o
Puppet play provides the opportunity to the students to get comfortable in situations that are
unfamiliar or challenging.
Disadvantages
o
Time consuming and difficult to make good puppets.
o
Requires special training to become good puppeteers.
7.3. Visual Aid (Printed)
7.3.1. Leaflets
Printed material, which includes leaflets, pamphlets and magazines are the major means
of conveying propaganda. Leaflets were initially used in military settings to
communicate a message rapidly among soldiers. Once printed and delivered, it can be
retained and readily passed from person to person without distortion of information.
A leaflet is a written or pictorial message on a single sheet of paper that is printed on
both sides and folded in half, in thirds, or in fourths; however, it has no standard size,
shape, or format. While selecting the size, shape and weight of the paper, the primary
consideration is that the paper accommodates the message and be easy to distribute.
The most commonly recommended size of leaflet is 6″×3″. The major factors which
affect the leaflet sizes are the length of message, artwork required, and the purpose of
the leaflet. A properly developed and designed message on a leaflet can have a deep and
lasting effect on the learner, and hence it is commonly used as an effective AV aid in a
teaching–learning situation.
Guidelines for Making Effective Leaflets
o
The teacher must persuade the students with the reasonableness of the message so that the
reader will be motivated either to pass it on to others or to relay the message by word of mouth.
o
The heading of the leaflet must be brief, summarizing the theme by using short and effective
words.
o
To gain the interest of a target audience within the first few words, the first sentence of the text
should contain the essence of the message.
o
While using pictures in leaflets the picture and the text must complement each other.
Advantages
o
A leaflet can be passed from student to student without distorting the information on it.
o
It allows for the use of photographs and graphic illustrations which can be easily understood by
all level of students.
o
It is permanent and can be stored and retrieved whenever required.
o
It can be useful to communicate messages for a very large as well as small group of students.
o
It reinforces learning by providing chances of rereading as and when required by the students.
Disadvantages
o
Dissemination of the leaflet is time consuming and costly.
o
It is less timely than other means of communication.
o
It can be altered by overprinting.
o
Development and design of effective printed material requires trained and knowledgeable
personnel.
7.3.2. Pamphlet
The pamphlet has been used for centuries as an economical AV aid for broad
distribution of information. A pamphlet is a booklet which is unbound or without a hard
cover. It typically consists of a few pages that are folded in half and saddle stapled at the
crease to make a simple book. In order to count as a pamphlet, UNESCO requires a
publication to have at least 5 but not more than 48 pages, exclusive of the cover pages; a
longer item is a book.
Pamphlets can contain anything from information on emergency management of heart
attack to the steps of basic life support, warning signs of cancer and warning signs of
stroke etc. It may also describe particular drugs, steps of some emergency conditions
which will help the students to learn by providing them rapid access to the material as
and when required.
7.4. Visual Aids (Projected)
7.4.1. Overhead Projector
Overhead projector (OHP) is one of the most frequently used visual aid in nursing
education which has replaced the blackboard in most of the classrooms. As the name
indicates, it is a projecting device that is made of a lamp, lens and mirror arrangement
which projects material, which is written or drawn on a transparent plastic sheet
(transparency), on a screen (Figure 8.8).
Figure 8.8 Overhead Projector
The size of the plastic sheet is usually 25 × 20 cm. Although it is not a sophisticated
instrument like the data projector but it still requires some guidelines to be followed to
make it an effective teaching aid.
Guidelines for Overhead Projector
o
Make sure that every student in the class can see the screen easily without any obstacle. The
OHP should be set up for optimum image size and focused before the class starts.
o
The stage of OHP where the transparency is placed should be clean so that it will not obscure
the images of the transparency.
o
Follow the general rule of one idea-one transparency.
o
The transparency must be covered with a opaque sheet while putting it on the OHP stage then
progressively disclose one point at a time.
o
While using a transparency don’t talk to the screen, but talk to the students and use a pointer
on the OHP stage to point out on the transparency.
o
Be creative while preparing a transparency; for example, to build up a complex diagram three
or four transparencies can be used as overlays on the original transparency or you may employ
cutouts to build visuals in stages.
o
Radiographs can be projected successfully with the overhead projector. For this purpose, the
classroom must be darkened.
o
Switch off the projector light when you are not using the OHP because the bright screen will
distract the students and also it is not good for the health of the OHP (projector may overheat).
o
Black, blue and green colors are considered good for transparency preparation. Avoid yellow,
orange and red (not projected well by OHP).
o
Not necessary to write text content in running CAPITAL LETTERS.
o
Write in legible letters.
o
While preparing transparencies, follow the rule of seven or eight lines per transparency and
seven or eight words per line.
Advantages of the Transparency
o
Transparencies can be prepared well in advance and can be stored and reused whenever
required.
o
Progressive disclosure of a transparency is helpful to gradually build up the concept under
study.
o
Material can be prepared by the teachers themselves.
o
It is a time-saving and cost-effective visual aid.
Disadvantages of the Transparency
o
Novice teachers may feel difficulty in proper use of transparency.
o
Creativity and imagination is required to make good transparency.
o
Students may read on the transparency if the teacher exposed it entirely in the beginning,
creating disharmony in what the teacher is teaching and what the student is reading.
o
Difficult to handle and preserve the transparency.
o
Electricity is a must for its use.
o
Teachers usually tend to talk to the screen instead of students.
o
Inappropriate teacher's position may cause difficulty in watching the transparency.
o
Printed transparencies which teachers use because of lack of time to prepare a transparency
cannot be considered as good approach.
o
Students require notes or handouts if class is taken with the help of transparency because most
of their time is spent in reading the transparency.
o
Not useful for students with visual impairment and dyslexia.
7.4.2. Slides
A slide is a small piece of transparent material on which a single graphical image is
placed or photographed. Slides are an important visual aid which is commonly used to
provide high-quality images to the learner with the help of a slide projector. It projects
still images in sequence on the screen which enriches the learning experience of the
students. Slide projectors and filmstrip projectors are AV devices which are used to
project slides and filmstrips on the screen.
Slides are small-format photographic transparencies in color or black and white which
are projected with the help of slide projectors. On the other hand, filmstrip projectors
project images contained in filmstrips, which are a series of small slides photographed
in permanent sequence on a 35mm or 16mm film, either in color or in black and white.
Each film strip usually contains 12 to 18 films in a sequence. They are less expensive,
easily handled and can be stored for future use. They are adaptable for use in every
subject area. There are two types of slides which are as follows.
o
Photographic slides: they may be black and white or colored. The size may vary between 2″ ×
2″ and 3″ × 4″.
o
Handmade slides: this type of slides can be made by using different types of materials (acetate
sheets, cellophane, etched glass etc.).
Advantages
o
Attracts the attention of the students.
o
Makes learning easy.
o
It is a portable visual aid, can be used in variety of settings.
Disadvantages
o
It is a costly visual aid.
o
Handling of the slide and slide projector is difficult.
7.5. Audio Aids
7.5.1. Public Address System
Public address (PA) systems consist of a microphone or input source, a mixer amplifier
and one or more loudspeakers to convert electrical signals into sound. Simple PA
systems of this type often provide 50 to 200 watts of power and are often used in small
venues such as college auditoriums, lecture theater and big classrooms to make teacher's
voice audible to the students. A sound source, such as a computer, may be connected to
a PA system so that audio or video can be played through the system.
PA systems with a larger number of speakers are widely used in institutional and
commercial buildings, to read announcements or declare states of emergency. Intercom
systems which are often used in schools also have microphones in each room to send
replies to the central office.
7.5.2. Radio
A radio is an auditory aid which is used to present teaching material in the form of voice
only. Its primary purpose is to entertain public but it can be exploited as a teaching aid.
The broadcasting of radio programs is done by “Akashwani”center, which reaches the
public direct in their homes.
As a teaching aid it can supplement classroom teaching and may be useful in improving
pronunciation and language of the students.
7.5.3. Tape Recorder
A tape recorder is a portable electronic device that can play pre-recorded sound as well
as record the sound on a magnetic tape. It provides functions to play, forward, rewind
and pause a particular tape. It can be used to teach verbal communication skills and
counseling skills to the nursing students. Nowadays, CD and DVD players have replaced
the traditional tape recorder, as they are more convenient and have a large storing
capacity on a single CD-ROM or DVD-ROM.
7.6. Audio Visual Aids
7.6.1. Multimedia
When two or more different types of media are used sequentially in a single instruction
or for self-paced learning package, the term multimedia is used. Using multimedia or
multi-image, a large amount of information can be passed across to students, and high
interest can be created in students. Furthermore, different media can be tailored
towards different objectives outlined for the lesson.
7.6.2. LCD Projector
LCD projector is the latest technological innovation which has revolutionized the world
of AV aids. It is a versatile teaching aid (multimedia) which is useful in almost all
educational disciplines. Content is projected with the help of a LCD projector, which can
project everything on the screen, whether it is still or moving (Figure 8.9). With the help
of a LCD projector, a teacher can use video, audio, PowerPoint presentation, slide show,
puppet show, films, motion pictures etc., as teaching aids. It has the capacity to hold the
student's attention for a prolonged period of time if used correctly.
Figure 8.9 LCD Projector
Advantages
o
Attracts the attention of the students.
o
Makes learning easy.
o
Can use a variety of presentation modes.
Disadvantages
o
It is costly and sophisticated equipment.
o
Requires careful handling.
o
It is not a portable device.
7.6.3. PowerPoint Slides
PowerPoint is a utility of Microsoft office which can provide high quality, high-tech
delivery of teaching materials through the use of slides on a computer screen (Figure
8.10). Being a versatile AV aid it can incorporate anything, like pictures, audio, video,
animation, text, graphs etc. on the slides, thereby increasing the student interest and
attention through stimulus variation.
Figure 8.10 PowerPoint Slides
Guidelines to Make Effective PowerPoint Slides and Presentation
o
Choose dark or light background of the slides as per your requirement. Select dark color font if
your background is light and vice versa.
o
Choose an appropriate layout for each slide as per the requirement (comparison, picture, video,
audio layout slide).
o
Projected text should be large enough so that everybody in the classroom can see it without any
difficulty. Ideally, headline font size should be 36–44 font size and rest of the text should be in
32–36 font size. It should never be less than 24 font size. Select Sans Serif font type as it is
considered best for PowerPoint presentations. All CAPITALIZED letters are difficult to read
and should be avoided.
o
Use images to emphasize a particular point or concept but it should never be used just to
occupy free space on the slide. Images must be relevant to the content of the slide, otherwise it
may distract the students.
o
Use simple animation whenever necessary, it is better to use it sparingly.
o
Follow the rule of eight (eight lines in each slide, eight words in each line.)
Disadvantages
o
It easily becomes a replacement for the presenter, not reinforcement.
o
More chances of misuse; presenter may just read on from slides, spoiling the purpose of the AV
aid.
o
The teacher may dare to take a class without enough preparation by putting all the content
material on the slides and just reading from it in the classroom.
Advantages of PowerPoint
o
Greater flexibility in selection of slides and illustration of teaching points.
o
Picture quality can be improved and pictures can also be edited as per requirement.
o
Safe, clean and minimal storage space required.
o
Textual information can be copied and retrieved any time and can be converted into hard copy.
o
Capable to provide maximum stimulus variation, e.g., photographs interspersed with models
and data, audio, video and animation etc.
o
Cartoon slides or fun slides can serve an educational purpose as well as lighten the teaching–
learning environment.
o
Maintain a high level of interest in the lesson.
o
Promote greater student participation.
o
Can be used at all levels of learning.
o
It is time-intensive to create PowerPoint slides but it is an investment which can easily be
updated and reused once teaching and learning patterns develop.
7.6.4. Films
Films are AV aids which communicate through sound and sight simultaneously. It
blends pictures, colors, objects and graphs to suits its purpose. It may be fixed filmstrips
or slides, and motion picture films.
Types of Films
There are many types of films which are available commercially but the following types
are more frequently used as teaching aids.
o
Instructional films: it pertains to specific instructional subjects and the duration of a film is
usually 10–20 minutes. Films division of government of India in cooperation with ministry of
education has produced many instructional films on different subjects.
o
Documentary films: it presents actual truthful material in a cinematically interesting way.
o
Discursive films: a topic or series of related topics are presented in a systematic, logical way
through this type of films.
o
Drill films: useful to teach disaster drills to nursing students.
Advantages
o
Direct the attention of the whole class to the screen and to the pictures and words on it.
o
Can depict the situations which the teacher cannot present in the class room.
o
It can be shown over and over again if required.
o
Attracts high degree of attention of the students, and hence can teach a large content material
in short time.
o
Motion pictures are able to communicate emotional experience and attitude.
Disadvantages
o
Films are costly.
o
Trained staff is needed which is generally not available.
o
It is difficult to discuss important points during the projection of a film.
7.6.5. Television
Television is considered as the electronic blackboard of modern society as well as a
medium of mass communication. It activates the sense of hearing and vision, and hence
results in better learning. It attracts the students and creates interest and desire to learn
among students.
Advancement in technology has changed the size and shape of television, refining its
quality as an educational media. Television can be used to show video, seminars,
demonstrations and lectures from an expert who is otherwise inaccessible in the
classroom. Its use as an AV aid is versatile and is considered very important in nursing
education. It is a boon for distance education as it broadcasts a number of educational
programs through satellite into the homes of students.
Figure 8.11 Various AV Aids Arranged in a Classroom
Advantages
o
Can be used for large group of students.
o
Saves the time of teacher and is an economical device.
o
Reduces teacher's workload.
Disadvantages
o
Requires electricity for operation.
o
Requires maintenance as well as a suitable place for installation.
CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS
o
AV aids or instructional aids are those technologies of education which enhance the learning
with the aid of sound and sight in the teaching–learning process.
o
AV aids can be defined as those stimulating material and devices which aid in teaching through
sound and sight to facilitate the learning of the students by activating more than one sensory
channel.
o
The purposes of AV aids are to increase the effectiveness of teaching, make the learning
experiences last longer and to make the teaching instructions standardized as learners with
varying abilities can receive the same message and their individual differences are catered
through the use of media.
o
While using AV aids in a classroom, certain principles should be kept in mind to enhance its
effectiveness to facilitate learning.
o
Learning objectives, group size of students, availability of resources and technical support,
media characteristics and electricity are some important concepts which should be kept in
mind while selecting appropriate media.
o
AV aids can be classified into three groups: audio aids, visual aids and audio-visual aids.
o
The blackboard or green board is the commonest and oldest visual aid used for teaching.
o
A flannel board is a board covered with flannel which is a soft cloth made of cotton or wool.
Flannel board can be used as a visual aid by placing shapes, symbols, and cutouts on it.
o
OHP is a projecting device that is made of a lamp, lens and mirror arrangement, which projects
material written or drawn on a transparent plastic sheet (transparency), on the screen.
o
While preparing transparencies follow the rule of seven or eight (seven or eight lines per
transparencies, seven or eight words per line).
o
PowerPoint slides are a utility of Microsoft office which can provide high-quality, high-tech
delivery of teaching material through the use of PowerPoint slides.
o
Bulletin board is a board on which current news, study material and quizzes can be displayed
by the students.
o
Flash cards as the name indicates are cards made of hard or compact paper of varying sizes on
which a brief content or illustration is displayed.
o
Specimen is a three-dimensional visual aid which is most commonly used in teaching of
anatomy, zoology and botany.
o
Models are three-dimensional visual aids which are not the same in size, shape or function of
the real object.
o
Puppet is an inanimate object which is used in the art of puppetry, popularly known
as “Kathputli”. It is a three-dimensional AV aid usually made of wood but any other material
can be also be used to prepare it.
o
Chart is an effective and simple visual aid frequently used by nursing students and teachers to
explain steps of a process, a concept, or for comparison of two contrasting ideas that are too
complex to be explained by words only.
o
When two or more different types of media are used sequentially in a single instruction or for
selfpaced learning package, the term multimedia is used.
o
Printed material, which includes leaflets, pamphlets and magazines are major means of
conveying propaganda.
o
The most commonly recommended size of leaflet is 6″ × 3″. The major factors which affect the
leaflet sizes are the length of message, artwork required, and the purpose of the leaflet.
o
In order to count as a pamphlet, UNESCO requires a publication to have at least 5 but not more
than 48 pages, exclusive of the cover pages; a longer item is a book.
o
Television is considered as the electronic blackboard of modern society. It activates the sense
of hearing and vision, and hence results in better learning.
EVALUATE YOURSELF
Q 1: Write a short note on puppets. (RGUHS 2010)
Q 2: Explain the importance of AV aids in nursing. Describe the principles of any two
aids. (MGU 2009)
Q 3: Discuss how blackboard is an effective visual aid in teaching nursing. (NIMS 2009)
Q 4: Write a short note on three-dimensional AV aids. (BFUHS 2009)
Q 5: Enumerate the criteria for selection of AV aids. (RUHS 2010)
Q 6: Differentiate between chalk board and bulletin board. (MGU 2008)
Q 7: Explain the method for selection of media for public educational programs in a
rural area. (BFUHS 2008)
Q 8: Explain the principles of effective use of OHP. (BFUHS 2008)
Q 9: What do you mean by educational media? Explain in detail about AV aids.
Q 10: Write short notes on the following.
o
Chalk board.
o
Overhead projector.
o
Flash cards.
o
Poster.
o
Uses of flannel board.
o
Bulletin board.
o
Projected teaching aids.
o
Slide projector.
o
LCD projector.
o
Power of PowerPoint as AV aid.
o
Types of film.
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
1. Farrow R. ABC of learning and teaching in medicine. Creating teaching materials.
BMJ. 2003;326:921–3.
2. Cannon R, Newble D. A handbook for teachers in universities and colleges. London:
Kogan.
3. Newble DI, Cannon R. A handbook for medical teachers. Dordrecht, Netharlands:
Kluwer Academic.
4. Kemp JE, Dayton DK. Planning and producing instructional media. New York:
Harper and Row.
5. Hartley J. Designing instructional text. London: Kogan.
6. Loretta E. Heidgerken's “Teaching and Learning in Nursing Education” twelfth
impression, 2003, Konark publishers ltd, Delhi.
7. Francis M. Quinn's “The principles and practice in nursing education”, third
edition, 1997, Stanley thrones publications ltd., United Kingdom.