CH. 12: INDUSTRIALIZATION AND
NATIONALISM, 1800 - 1870
Text pgs. 360 - 391
I. The Industrial Revolution
A. The Industrial Revolution in Great Britain

English factory

The Industrial Revolution is a period of
European history in which new agricultural,
manufacturing and transport technologies
changed the way goods were produced. This
had a major effect on society as a whole
and people’s lives particularly.
Changes in manufacturing began in Great
Britain in the late 1700s, but it was not until
decades later that these changes were
introduced to other nations. Why was Britain
first? There are a number of factors that
gave Britain an advantage.
I. The Industrial Revolution
B. Contributing Factors


Agriculture in Britain had been changed
dramatically in the 1700s. More farmland
was cultivated. A four-field crop rotation was
introduced that made better use of fields.
New crops, like potatoes and corn, were
imported. Food became cheaper and
required less labor.
With greater availability of food, the
population began to rise. During this time,
Parliament passed laws that allowed largescale landowners to take land that had been
for common use and fence it in. This enclosure
movement forced thousands of rural laborers
to move into large cities and look for work.
I. The Industrial Revolution
B. Contributing Factors


Rivers & Canals

Cutty Sark
Britain had a large amount of money available for
investment, called capital. Some people, known as
entrepreneurs, used their capital to found new
businesses, buy machinery and build factories.
Britain also had natural resources. Early factories
relied on rivers for power and transportation. Later,
coal was used as a power source. Iron and tin were
necessary for building machinery. Britain had all of
these in huge quantities.
Finally, British merchants had access to markets for
manufactured goods. People in Britain had money
to spare, and British colonies required finished
products. The merchant marine could transport
goods all over the world.
I. The Industrial Revolution
Preview




Change in Cotton Production
The Coal and Iron Industries
Railroads
Pgs. 364 - 365
I. The Industrial Revolution
C. Change in Cotton Production



Britain dominated the manufacture of cotton cloth in the 1700s.
Production required two steps: Cotton fiber was pulled into
thread by spinners, then thread was woven into cloth on looms.
Traditionally, this was all done by individuals in their homes, a
system called cottage industry.
Cottage industry was rendered redundant by technological
advances in the 1700s. The invention of the “flying shuttle” made
weaving faster, which increased demand for thread.
The spinning jenny, an automatic thread puller, was invented in
1764 by James Hargreaves. Other spinning machines increased
the production of thread beyond what weavers could use.
I. The Industrial Revolution
C. Change in Cotton Production



The power loom, invented by Edmund
Cartwright in 1787, used a water wheel to
drive weaving machines. Factories had to
be located near rivers, so it was more
practical to bring workers to the mills.
Water power was replaced by steam
engines, invented by James Watt and
perfected by 1782. Steam could power
both spinning and weaving equipment, and
these mills could be located anywhere.
Cotton cloth production increased by over
1000 percent from 1760 to 1840. Cotton
goods became Britain’s primary export,
and nearly all of it was made in factories.
Power loom
James Watt
I. The Industrial Revolution
D. The Coal and Iron Industries

Child coal miners


Puddling furnace
The success and versatility of the steam engine
caused its use to expand rapidly in the late
eighteenth century. These machines burned coal
for fuel, which meant that there was a parallel
increase in coal mining. The abundance of coal
also led to changes in the iron industry.
In the 1780s, Henry Cort introduced the process
of puddling, in which coke (derived from coal)
was used to drive out the impurities in pig iron.
This produced a much higher quality of iron.
The puddling process led to a boom in British
iron production. By 1852, British foundries
produced 3 million tons of iron a year, more than
all other countries combined.
I. The Industrial Revolution
E. Railroads



Several developments in transportation occurred
in the late 1700s. Paved roads and canals
improved transport efficiency, but the railway
system made the greatest impact.
The first commercial railway in Britain opened in
1804. It only hauled 10 tons of cargo at 5 mph.
By 1850, trains could reach 50 mph and pull up
to 40 tons. There were 6,000 miles of track
covering Britain.
Reliable rail transport allowed merchants to
move their products to market faster and
cheaper than ever before. Communication
between cities improved. Workers could commute
to factories with ease, and thousands of railway
jobs were created.
The Rocket
I. The Industrial Revolution
Preview




The New Factories
The Spread of
Industrialization
Europe
Pgs. 365 - 366
I. The Industrial Revolution
F. The New Factories

19th century
machine shop

Factory girls
The factory system drastically changed how labor
was organized. Machines and facilities were
expensive to build, so factory owners wanted to
get as much use out of them as possible.
Consequently, owners organized their workers into
shifts that worked as much as 18 hours at a stretch,
often overnight. Men, women, and children as
young as six worked in the mills.
Early factory employees had mostly come from
farming backgrounds, where they were used to
periods of heavy labor broken up by slower
periods. In order to adapt them to the factory
system, owners would charge fines for being late,
punish workers for being drunk, and beat child
laborers for being disobedient.
I. The Industrial Revolution
G. The Spread of Industrialization



By the mid-1800s, industrialization had made Great Britain
the most prosperous and economically powerful nation in the
world.
In 1850, Britain produced over half of the coal used and
manufactured goods bought. Cotton production was equal to
all other nations combined.
Naturally, other nations had witnessed what Britain was able
to do. They wished to copy the British model and increase
their own production. The Industrial Revolution spread to
Europe and North America by the early nineteenth century.
I. The Industrial Revolution
H. Europe



The Industrial Revolution reached different
European nations at different times. Those
countries that had urbanized populations and
manufacturing traditions, like France, Belgium
and the German states, adapted to the factory
system more quickly.
In each of these cases, the government took an
active role in the spread of industrialization.
States built railroads and canals to facilitate
transport.
By contrast, nations like Spain and Russia had
agrarian populations, relatively little
manufacturing, and disinterested governments.
They adopted industrialization much later.
European tenements
I. The Industrial Revolution
Preview




North America
Social Impact in Europe
Growth of Population and
Cities
Pgs. 366 - 368
I. The Industrial Revolution
Homework




Answer each question in a half-page response with complete
sentences. Be accurate, be specific, be complete. Due
tomorrow.
1. In what ways did British workers have to adapt to the
factory system? What did owners do to make them adapt?
2. What technological changes led to the development of
industrialization?
3. Critical Thinking (10 pts.): Look at the graph on pg. 366.
How did Britain’s population growth compare to the United
States’ growth between 1830 and 1870? How do they
compare between 1870 and 1900? Why is there a
difference?
I. The Industrial Revolution
I. North America

Rear-wheel steamer

Reading line locomotive

Lawrence Textiles, Inc.
Beginning in 1800, the United States underwent
an industrial revolution as well. By 1860, half of
all workers were employed in factories, and nine
cities had populations over 100,000.
For a nation the size of the U.S., transportation
was key. Robert Fulton invented the first
paddlewheel steamer in 1807. 50 years later,
thousands of them cruised the Mississippi.
Between 1830 and 1860, almost 30,000 miles
of railroad track were added.
Heavy industry was mostly located in the
northeast, where textile factories predominantly
hired women. In some factory towns, whole
families were hired, including children.
I. The Industrial Revolution
J. Social Impact in Europe


Industrialization dramatically changed the
social structure of Europe in the 1800s.
Economic power shifted away from the
nobility, who had traditionally managed
the finances of European nations, to the
upper-middle class, who owned the new
factories and controlled a major stake in
nations’ financial futures.
In addition, two entirely new social classes
were created by the 1850s: The industrial
middle class, and the industrial working
class. These groups were distinct from the
middle class and urban poor whom they
competed with.
Industrial middle class
Industrial working class
I. The Industrial Revolution
K. Growth of Population and Cities




From 1750 to 1850, the population of Europe nearly doubled, from 140
million to 266 million. This drastic increase was caused by declining death
rates, fewer wars, and less disease. The increase was so abrupt that
economist Thomas Malthus predicted that the world would run out of food
within a century.
The exception to the trend was the potato famine of the 1840s. When a
fungal infection destroyed the potato crop, nearly 1 million Irish people
died, and another million migrated to America.
Steam power allowed factories to relocate into major cities. Railroads
allowed rural workers to move into urban areas to find work. By 1850,
over 50% of the British population lived in London or one of the other 18
cities with a population over 50,000.
This led to appalling urban conditions. There were no sanitation laws.
Buildings were not subject to codes. Deaths due to disease and fire were
common. Calls for reform led to dramatic changes in the second half of the
century.
I. The Industrial Revolution
Preview




The Industrial Middle Class
The Industrial Working Class
Early Socialism
Pgs. 368 - 370
I. The Industrial Revolution
L. The Industrial Middle Class


Elias Howe

Stock prices, 1750 - 1900
In the nineteenth century, the economic
environment of Europe was defined as industrial
capitalism, a system based on manufacturing. This
new system created a new element within the
urban middle class – the industrial middle class.
The bourgeoisie of the 1700s had included
merchants, lawyers, bankers and government
officials. In the 1800s, that group was expanded
to include entrepreneurs, factory owners and
stock market traders.
The industrial middle class came to be defined by
their ambition, initiative, and greed. Above all
else, profit was their prime motivator.
I. The Industrial Revolution
M. The Industrial Working Class



Industrialization also changed the lives of the
urban poor. Unskilled or semi-skilled laborers
became part of the industrial working class.
Conditions for workers were terrible. They
worked as much as sixteen hours a day, six
days a week, in dangerous and unhealthy
facilities. There was no minimum wage, no
safety laws and no unemployment insurance.
The worst conditions were in coal mines. In
tunnels four feet high and poorly lit, men dug
tons of coal with hand tools. Women and
children hauled the coal. Cave-ins, explosions
and gas leaks were constant threats. Coal
dust and dampness caused permanent back
and lung injuries.
Hauling
Sorting
Cave-in
I. The Industrial Revolution
M. The Industrial Working Class

Overhead drive belts


Mill girls

Facial injury
Cotton mills were also dangerous work
environments. Fast-moving machines had no safety
guards. The buildings were hot, dusty and
unhealthy.
Cotton mills employed a high number of women and
children. In 1833, Britain passed the Factory Act,
which limited the age and work hours for children.
Women earned less than half the wages of men.
Laws limited the number of hours women could
work.
Limits on women and child labor hurt family income,
and men were expected to make up the difference
by working even longer hours. Gradually, women
left the workforce in favor of caring for the home
and family.
I. The Industrial Revolution
N. Early Socialism



The appalling living and working conditions created
by the Industrial Revolution prompted the rise of
socialism. Socialism is a political and economic
system in which the government owns factories and
runs them for the benefit of the employees.
Early socialists believed in the equality of all people
and the power of cooperation. The cotton
manufacturer Robert Owen created two ideal
factory towns in New Lanark, Scotland and New
Harmony, Indiana. The American experiment was a
failure.
Later socialists, after Karl Marx, were more cynical
and labeled the previous generation as utopian
socialists.
Robert Owen
New Lanark Mill
Karl Marx
II. Reaction and Revolution
Preview




The Congress of Vienna
The Conservative Order
Forces of Change
Pgs. 371 - 373
II. Reaction and Revolution
A. The Congress of Vienna

Prince Metternich


The new map of Europe
Once Napoleon was defeated and exiled,
the great powers of Europe (Britain, Austria,
Prussia and Russia) moved to restore the old
order. Representatives met at the Congress of
Vienna in 1814, a meeting organized by
Prince Klemens von Metternich.
The guiding principle behind Metternich’s plan
was supposed to be legitimacy – that royal
families be returned to their thrones. This was
done in France, but overlooked elsewhere.
Instead, the great powers shuffled territories
amongst themselves to create a new balance
of power. The idea was to keep the four most
powerful nations about equal, so no one could
dominate the others.
II. Reaction and Revolution
B. The Conservative Order


The Congress of Vienna was a victory for
conservatism – a political view that values
tradition and stability. Conservatives resisted
social change, believed in obedience to authority,
and supported established religion. They feared
revolutions and disallowed individual rights.
In order to maintain the balance of power, the
great powers agreed to periodic meetings known
as the Concert of Europe. These meetings led to
the principle of intervention, which allowed the
great powers to send troops to other countries in
order to stop revolutions. Britain refused to accept
the principle of intervention, but the other great
powers used it to defeat attempted revolutions in
Spain and Italy.
The “Concert of Europe”
The Spanish Revolution of
1808 – 1820, by Goya
II. Reaction and Revolution
C. Forces of Change


Conservatism ruled political thought in Europe from 1815 to
1830. The great powers managed to suppress revolutions
and maintain the balance of power. The ideological gains
of the French Revolution had been reversed in favor of
obedience and stability.
Change could not be prevented forever. The urge toward
liberty and individual rights was too strong. Two powerful
forces opposed the new order: Liberalism and nationalism.
II. Reaction and Revolution
Preview




Liberalism
Nationalism
Revolutionary Outbursts
Pgs. 373 - 374
II. Reaction and Revolution
Homework
Answer each question in a half-page response
with complete sentences. Be accurate, be specific,
be complete. Due tomorrow.
 1. What type of working conditions did industrial
workers face?
 2. What was Prince Metternich’s guiding principle
at the Congress of Vienna? Was it carried out?
 3. Describe the views of the conservative
movement.

II. Reaction and Revolution
D. Liberalism


German middle-class

“Liberal barbarism”
The philosophy of liberalism comes largely from
Enlightenment thought. Liberals believed that
governments should restrict individual liberty as
little as possible.
Liberals thought that basic civil liberties
(freedom of speech, press, assembly, equality
before the law) should be protected by some
form of bill of rights. Most also believed in
religious toleration and separation of church
and state.
Liberalism favored a constitutional monarchy
managed by a legislative assembly elected by
qualified voters. Liberals did not advocate
universal suffrage, preferring to give the vote
only to male landowners.
II. Reaction and Revolution
E. Nationalism



Nationalism was a creation of the French
Revolution. People realized that they were a part
of a community defined by shared institutions,
language, and customs. Nationalists are those
whose loyalty is to the nation, rather than to a
dynasty.
Nationalists felt that each group should have its
own country. Germans, who had been politically
divided for centuries, wanted a unified Germany.
Hungarians, who were dominated by foreign
powers, wanted independence.
Conservatives feared nationalism because it
could threaten the balance of power. Liberals
favored nationalism because it provided for selfgovernment.
Nations on parade
II. Reaction and Revolution
F. Revolutionary Outbursts


Revolution of 1830

Louis-Philippe
By 1830, conservatism had lost its grip on
European politics. Nationalist and liberal
motivations led to a series of revolutions.
Charles X, the king of France, attempted to
abolish the legislature in 1830. The people
of France revolted, removed Charles, and
replaced him with his cousin Louis-Philippe.
That same year, Belgium rebelled against
the Dutch Republic and became
independent. Poland rebelled against
Russian rule, but was defeated. Italy
attempted to become independent, but
Austria intervened to prevent it.
II. Reaction and Revolution
Preview




The Revolutions of 1848
Another French Revolution
Trouble in the German States
Pgs. 374 - 375
II. Reaction and Revolution
G. The Revolutions of 1848


Liberalism and nationalism had
made some gains in France and
Belgium in 1830, but the forces
of conservatism still dominated
the rest of Europe. The great
powers continued to dominate
politics.
Another wave of revolutions
changed all that. In 1848, no
less than eleven major uprisings
rocked Europe. The balance of
power was permanently shifted,
and the map of Europe was
changed forever.
II. Reaction and Revolution
H. Another French Revolution


Street barricades


Louis-Napoleon
In France, unrest began in 1846. Economic problems
oppressed the poor, while the middle class demanded
voting rights. Louis-Philippe refused to make changes.
Revolution broke out in 1848, and Louis-Philippe was
deposed. A provisional government was created by
moderate and radical republicans. This Constituent Assembly
called for a new constitution, and elections based on
universal male suffrage.
Radicals in the government created workhouses to combat
unemployment. They were so expensive to operate that the
moderates closed them after four months. This sparked a
revolt of the poor, which the government brutally crushed.
The new constitution was ratified on November 4, 1848,
creating the Second Republic. The first president, elected
through universal male suffrage, was Napoleon’s nephew,
Louis-Napoleon.
II. Reaction and Revolution
I. Trouble in the German States



The French uprising helped spread liberal and
nationalist sentiments to other parts of Europe in
1848.
The Congress of Vienna had created the German
Confederation, a loose organization of 38
independent states, including Austria and Prussia.
Many of these states experienced agitation for
constitutional reforms in 1848.
An all-German parliament, the Frankfurt Assembly,
met to draft a constitution for a unified Germany.
Representatives were elected through universal male
suffrage. Unfortunately, unity was prevented by the
opposition of Austria. The Frankfurt Assembly closed
in 1849 without achieving much.
Frankfurt Assembly
Barricades in Berlin
II. Reaction and Revolution
Preview




Revolutions in Central Europe
Revolts in the Italian States
Breakdown of the Concert of Europe
Pgs. 375 - 379
II. Reaction and Revolution
J. Revolutions in Central Europe

Russians in Budapest

Capitol, Vienna

The Austrian Empire was ripe for revolution. The multinational state was composed of Germans,
Hungarians, Czechs, Slovakians, Romanians, Slovenes,
Poles, Croats, Serbians and Italians. Germans led the
government, through they made up less than 25% of
the population.
Anti-government demonstrations in Vienna succeeded
in removing Metternich from the foreign ministry.
Nationalist groups demanded a constitution. The
government granted autonomy to Hungary. The
Czechs insisted on the same.
With assistance from Russia, the Austrian government
was able to defeat the rebels in Prague, Vienna and
Budapest. Military force had defeated these
revolutions.
II. Reaction and Revolution
K. Revolts in the Italian States



Italy was divided into nine states by the Congress
of Vienna. The two northern provinces, Lombardy
and Venetia, had been granted to Austria. In 1848,
they rebelled against imperial rule.
Following their lead, people of other Italian states
demanded liberal reform and unification. The Papal
States, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and the
Piedmont all had revolutions in 1848 and 1849.
The Italian revolts were all crushed, and the old
order was preserved. This was the case with most of
the revolutions of 1848: moderate liberals and
radicals struggled with each other and conservative
forces took advantage.
Italian & Austrian soldiers
III. National Unification & the Nation State
A. Breakdown of the Concert of Europe


Charge of the Light Brigade

The Thin Red Line

The promise of the revolutions of 1848 had not paid off. By
1871, that promise would be fulfilled, and the decisive
event was the Crimean War.
The Ottoman Empire had ruled over southeastern Europe
for three hundred years, but by 1850 its authority was
weakening. Russia, believing itself to be the savior of all
Slavic peoples, determined to take control of the Balkans.
In 1853, Russia invaded the Crimean Peninsula.
Russia’s conquest of the eastern Balkans threatened the
balance of power. France and Britain declared war on
Russia in 1854.
The war was poorly fought on both sides. In 1856, Russia
sued for peace. Romania and Wallachia were placed
under the authority of all the great powers. The war
destroyed the Concert of Europe by ending cooperation
between Russia and Austria.
III. National Unification & the Nation State
Preview



Italian Unification
German Unification
Pgs. 379 - 381
III. National Unification & the Nation State
B. Italian Unification



After the failed revolutions of 1848, Austria was still
the dominant power in Italy. Those who sought Italian
unification looked to King Victor Emmanuel II of the
Piedmont for leadership.
Camillo di Cavour, prime minister of the Piedmont
from 1852, increased government revenues and
equipped a large standing army. He also made an
alliance with Louis-Napoleon of France.
In 1859, Cavour taunted Austria into invading the
Piedmont. After the ensuing war, Piedmont gained
control of Lombardy from Austria, France gained
territory in Nice and Savoy, and other Italian states
(Parma, Modena, Tuscany) joined an alliance with
Piedmont.
Victor Emmanuel II
III. National Unification & the Nation State
B. Italian Unification


Camillo di Cavour


Giuseppe Garibaldi
At the same time, an Italian patriot named Giuseppe
Garibaldi raised a volunteer army of 1000, known as the
Red Shirts, to fight for Italian unification.
A revolt broke out in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
against the Bourbon king. Garibaldi’s small force landed in
Sicily and managed to defeat the royalist forces. He then
invaded the mainland and conquered Naples.
On March 17, 1861, Garibaldi ceded the territory he had
conquered to Piedmont, creating a new Italian kingdom
under Victor Emmanuel II.
In 1866, Italy allied itself with Prussia in the AustroPrussian War and gained control of Venetia. In the FrancoPrussian War of 1870, French troops abandoned Rome,
leaving the Papal States undefended from an Italian
invasion. Rome became the new capital of a unified Italy.
III. National Unification & the Nation State
C. German Unification




After the failure of the Frankfurt Assembly, Prussia
emerged as the leader of German unification.
Prussia was a powerful, prosperous state with an
authoritarian government.
Militarism (solving problems through force) was
strong in Prussia. When King William I wanted to
expand the army in the 1860s and the legislature
refused, he appointed Otto von Bismarck as prime
minister.
Bismarck was a practitioner of Realpolitik – politics
based on practical concerns rather than ethics. He
ran Prussia without consulting parliament, expanding
the army as he saw fit.
Prussia defeated Denmark in 1864, gaining the
duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. In 1866, they
turned on Austria and humiliated the Imperial army
in the Austro-Prussian War.
Otto von Bismarck
III. National Unification & the Nation State
C. German Unification

Surrender at Sedan


Kaiser William I
By 1866, Prussia was the premier military power in Europe. This
allowed Bismarck to create the North German Confederation of
all states north of the Rhine. Catholic southern Germany feared
the Protestant north, but they were more afraid of France, so
they entered into a military alliance with Prussia.
In 1870, a dispute over the throne of Spain caused France to
declare war on Prussia. The southern German states honored
their alliance. Superior Prussian leadership and armaments
overwhelmed the French. At the Battle of Sedan (Sept. 2, 1870),
Louis-Napoleon was captured and forced to sue for peace. The
Franco-Prussian War was a disaster for France. They were forced
to give up Alsace and Lorraine, and pay five billion francs to
Prussia.
On January 18, 1871, in Versailles, Bismarck and the princes of
Germany proclaimed William I to be Kaiser of the Second
German Empire. The Prussian army had unified the nation.
Militarism and bureaucracy would make Germany the most
powerful state in mainland Europe.
III. National Unification & the Nation State
Preview




Nationalism and Reform in Europe
Great Britain
France
Pgs. 382 - 383
II. Reaction and Revolution
Homework




Answer each question in a half-page response with
complete sentences. Be accurate, be specific, be
complete. Due tomorrow.
1. How did liberalism and nationalism begin to break
through the conservative domination of Europe?
2. What countries experienced revolutions in 1848?
3. How did the Crimean War destroy the Concert of
Europe?
III. National Unification & the Nation State
D. Nationalism and Reform in Europe


In the 1860s and 70s, Italy and
Germany had achieved unification.
Neither new country was
particularly liberal, but both were
avowedly nationalist.
During the same time period, other
European nations went through
dramatic changes. The great
powers all experienced challenges
to the established order in some
form.
Napoleon III
Queen Victoria
III. National Unification & the Nation State
E. Great Britain


Victoria Regis
The royal family

Great Britain avoided the social upheavals of 1830
and 1848 by enacting liberal reforms. During this
period, voting rights were extended to include the
industrial middle class, which preempted their
participation in any uprisings.
Economic growth also contributed to stability. The
huge gains of the Industrial Revolution finally began
to improve the lives of the industrial working class by
1850. Wages rose by 25% by 1870.
British society was dominated by the personality of
Queen Victoria (reigned 1837 – 1901). The values of
duty and morality permeated every level of British
society and defined the Victorian Age.
III. National Unification & the Nation State
F. France




In 1852, Louis-Napoleon held a plebiscite to see if the
people of the French Republic wanted to bring back the
Empire. 97% of the population voted “yes.” The president
thus became Emperor Napoleon III.
Napoleon III was an authoritarian ruler. He personally
controlled every aspect of the government and armed
forces. The Legislative Corps was a meaningless symbol.
The first five years of the Second Empire were very
successful. The emperor subsidized industry and
expanded the economy. The city of Paris was
modernized, including wider streets and gas lights.
Faced with criticism in the 1860s, Napoleon III enacted
some liberal reforms. His title was renewed by plebiscite
in 1870, but the disaster of the Franco-Prussian War led
to his abdication the following year.
Napoleon III
Paris boulevards
III. National Unification & the Nation State
Preview



The Austrian Empire
Russia
Pgs. 383 - 384
III. National Unification & the Nation State
G. The Austrian Empire


18 regions of the Empire


Emperor Francis Joseph
Nationalism had led to the unification of Germany and
Italy, but it had the opposite effect on the Austrian
Empire. The many ethnicities that made up the Austrian
population all craved independence.
Austria had defeated the revolutionaries of 1848, but
when Prussia humiliated the Empire in 1866, it left them
weak in the face of Hungarian demands for nationhood.
The solution was the Compromise of 1867, which gave
Hungary its own constitution and national government. The
Austro-Hungarian Empire remained intact because the
Emperor of Austria, Francis Joseph, was also king of
Hungary. The two nations shared an economy and
military.
The Compromise settled the Hungarian situation, but it did
not satisfy the other nationalist groups in the Empire.
III. National Unification & the Nation State
H. Russia



Russia had been unaffected by the forces of
change through the mid-1800s. The czar was
still a divine-right autocrat, serfdom structured
the economy, and society was oppressed by the
army and secret police.
Russia’s defeat in the Crimean War in 1856
convinced even the hardline conservatives that
change was necessary. Czar Alexander II
began to reform the nation.
Serfdom, which had been abolished
everywhere else in Europe decades earlier, was
the greatest roadblock to modernizing the
Russian economy. On March 3, 1861, the czar
issued an edict of emancipation. This gave
peasants the right to own property and marry
without asking permission of their landlords.
Czar Alexander II
III. National Unification & the Nation State
H. Russia

Assassination of Alexander II


Czar Alexander III
In order to provide peasants with land, the
government purchased it from the nobility. This was
not as helpful to the peasants as one would
imagine. Only the worst land was given to them,
which led to permanent poverty and occasional
starvation. These conditions prevented the
peasantry from adopting modern farming
methods.
Alexander II also tried to reform the Russian
government and encourage industrialization. His
efforts were met with resistance from conservatives
and criticism from liberals.
In 1881, dissatisfied radicals assassinated
Alexander II with a bomb. His successor, Alexander
III, reversed national policy and reversed all of the
liberal reforms. Russia was again an autocratic
backwater.
III. National Unification & the Nation State
Preview



Nationalism in the United States
The Emergence of a Canadian Nation
Pgs. 384 - 385
III. National Unification & the Nation State
I. Nationalism in the United States



Nationalism and liberalism had been important themes in
the U.S. Constitution, but there was a division as to how the
country should be run. Federalists favored a strong central
government, while Republicans wanted strong states. The
argument ceased following the War of 1812 and a
subsequent upsurge in national spirit.
A reduction in property requirements for voting in the
1820s led to the election of Andrew Jackson as president
in 1828. The era of Jacksonian Democracy saw the
development of populist politics.
By the late 1840s, slavery had become the most
prominent issue in American politics. The economy of the
southern states relied almost entirely on slave-gathered
cotton. In the north, the abolitionist movement gained
popular support and began to put pressure on Congress
to end slavery.
“Old Hickory”
John Brown
III. National Unification & the Nation State
I. Nationalism in the United States



“Honest Abe”

Lee surrenders to Grant
at Appomattox Courthouse
By 1860, compromise was impossible. When
Abraham Lincoln, favored by abolitionists, was
elected president, southern states attempted to
secede from the Union.
By February 1861, seven states had formed the
Confederate States of America. In April, the Civil
War broke out at Fort Sumter, South Carolina.
The Civil War (1861 – 1865) cost the lives of
600,000 soldiers on both sides. On January 1, 1863,
Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, freeing
all slaves held in Confederate states.
The Union’s superiority in manpower, manufacturing
and transportation eventually led to victory over the
Confederacy. On April 9, 1865, General Robert E.
Lee surrendered, and the United States was reunified
as a free nation.
III. National Unification & the Nation State
J. The Emergence of a Canadian Nation



After the Seven Years’ War ended in 1763, Canada
became a British possession. It was split between Upper
Canada, which was English-speaking, and Lower
Canada, which was French. Both provinces favored
independence from Britain by 1800.
Rebellions against the British broke out in 1837 - 1838.
Rather than fight another war of independence,
Parliament formed the two regions into the United
Provinces of Canada in 1840. It was not granted selfrule.
John Macdonald, a conservative politician, agitated for
independence. At the same time, Britain was concerned
that the United States might invade Canada again. In
1867, Parliament passed the British North America Act,
which made Canada a semi-independent nation with its
own constitution. Macdonald became the first prime
minister.
John Macdonald
IV. Culture: Romanticism and Realism
Preview


Romanticism
Pgs. 387 - 389
III. National Unification & the Nation State
Homework




Answer each question in a half-page response with
complete sentences. Be accurate, be specific, be
complete. Due tomorrow.
1. Explain the events that led to the unification of Italy.
2. Explain the events that led to the unification of
Germany.
3. How was Great Britain able to avoid a revolution in
1848?
IV. Culture: Romanticism and Realism
A. Romanticism

Houses of Parliament, London


Ivanhoe
Romanticism, an artistic and philosophical
movement, emerged in the late 1700s as a
reaction to the Enlightenment. Rather than
reason, Romantics stressed the importance of
emotion and subjective understanding.
Romantic artists stressed individualism. Men wore
their hair long, and both sexes wore outlandish
outfits in order to stand out. The protagonists of
Romantic novels are often misunderstood
individualists.
Romantics were also obsessed with the past.
Architects attempted to recreate Medieval-style
buildings, leading to the neo-Gothic school.
Novelists like Sir Walter Scott wrote tales of
knights and fair maidens. This emphasis on the
glorious past played into the development of
nationalism.
IV. Culture: Romanticism and Realism
A. Romanticism


Some Romantics became interested in the
bizarre and unreal. This led to Dark
Romantic, or Gothic, literature, which includes
Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein and the works
of Edgar Allen Poe. Some authors were
infatuated with dreams and altered states
of consciousness.
The most important theme of Romanticism is
nature as a mirror of humanity, which is most
present in poetry. William Wordsworth and
others idealized nature to the point of
worship. Consequently, they rejected science
as soulless and dangerous. They viewed
industrialization as leading to alienation.
The Monster
Wordsworth
IV. Culture: Romanticism and Realism
A. Romanticism



“The Abduction of Rebecca”
by Delacriox

Romantic painters emphasized their own
subjective perspective and focused on
warmth and emotion. Eugene Delacroix’s
works feature a fascination with the exotic
and with color.
Music was also influenced by Romanticism.
Music can appeal directly to the emotions
in a way that other media cannot.
The compositions of Ludwig van Beethoven
characterize the transition from classical
music to the Romantic period. Beginning
with his Third Symphony, his work became
increasingly focused on his internal
feelings.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lDGP
b86o1FA
IV. Culture: Romanticism and Realism
Preview



A New Age of Science
Realism
Pgs. 389 - 391
IV. Culture: Romanticism and Realism
B. A New Age of Science

By the beginning of the 1800s, the scientific
revolution had produced benefits for the entire
world.





Edward Jenner created a vaccine for smallpox in
1796.
Louis Pasteur developed the germ theory of
disease, the basis for modern medicine.
Dmitry Mendeleyev improved the periodic table of
elements by ranking them according to atomic
weight.
Michael Faraday built a primitive generator that
led to harnessing electricity.
Reliance on science led to secularization, or the
rejection of religious concepts in favor of
materialism.
Smallpox vaccine
Faraday generator
IV. Culture: Romanticism and Realism
B. A New Age of Science


Darwin in 1859
Darwin’s finches

Charles Darwin accidentally contributed to
secularization when he published On the Origin of
Species by Means of Natural Selection in 1859. This
work set out the basic idea of organic evolution:
Competition for limited resources (natural selection)
causes species to adapt and change through
generations.
In a follow-up work, The Descent of Man (1871),
Darwin argued that the same process had caused
humans to evolve from animal origins.
Darwin’s ideas caused controversy among those who
believed that humans were divinely created and
had not descended from other species. They thought
that Darwin’s concept of the universe left no place
for morality or religion.
IV. Culture: Romanticism and Realism
C. Realism



The scientific outlook of the late 1800s prompted
an artistic expression known as Realism. In contrast
to Romanticism, Realism attempted to portray the
world as it really was.
In literature, authors wrote about ordinary people
and real-world struggles. They avoided emotional
language in favor of precise description. Many
authors, particularly French ones like Gustave
Flaubert, used their novels to discuss social issues
like poverty and social inequality.
Charles Dickens was highly successful with novels
like Oliver Twist and David Copperfield, which
criticized the negative impact of the Industrial
Revolution.
Madame Bovary
Oliver Twist
IV. Culture: Romanticism and Realism
C. Realism


Gustave Courbet,
Self-Portrait

“Peasants of Flagey”
In graphic arts, Realism also emphasized
accuracy. French painters again excelled in
depicting everyday events and normal people
in photographic detail.
The most famous Realist artist was Gustave
Courbet. His paintings depict industrial workers,
peasants and townspeople engaged in
everyday activities. He believed he should only
try to paint scenes he had actually witnessed.
Some critics took offense at Courbet’s “cult of
ugliness.” His attention to the grim side of
reality contrasted with Romantic themes of the
day. Courbet was not moved by their criticism.