What is Earth Science?
 Earth science: The study of ‘Earth
Systems’.
 Astronomy: The study of objects beyond
Earth.
 Meteorology: The study of the air
surrounding Earth.
 Geology: The study of materials that make
up Earth.
 Oceanography: The study of Earth’s
oceans.
What are the major ‘Earth
Systems’?
 Lithosphere
 Outer
shell (crust) of the Earth,
including all rocks.
What are the major ‘Earth
Systems’?
 Hydrosphere

All water on Earth…both saltwater AND
freshwater.
 Oceans
 Lakes
 Rivers
 Seas
 Glaciers
What are the major ‘Earth
Systems’?
 Atmosphere

The blanket of gases that surround Earth.
 Mostly
nitrogen and oxygen!
What are the major ‘Earth
Systems’?
 Biosphere

All living things on Earth.
 This
is what you will study in BIOLOGY!!!
Why is Earth Science
important to us?
 We LIVE on the lithosphere.
 We BREATHE part of the atmosphere.
 We DRINK part of the hydrosphere.
What is the Scientific Method?
 Question
 Hypothesis
 Experiment
 Procedure
 Independent Variable…what we CHANGE (1)
 Control…what we keep the SAME
 Observations
 Results
 Conclusion
What is cartography?
 Cartography: The science of
mapmaking.

Lines in the form of a grid are usually used
as a basis to create maps.
What are map lines called?
 Lines that run up-and-down (North and
South) on a map are called lines of
LONGITUDE.
 Lines that run side-to-side (East and
West) on a map are called lines
of LATITUDE.
What are map lines called?
 The central line of LONGITUDE on Earth
is the PRIME MERIDIAN.
 The central line of LATITUDE on
Earth is the EQUATOR.
How is latitude measured?
 The EQUATOR is 0 degrees latitude.
 The NORTH POLE is 90 degrees North.
 The SOUTH POLE is 90 degrees South.
How is longitude measured?
 The PRIME MERIDIAN is 0 degrees longitude.
 The INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE is 180
degrees longitude.
 All other longitude measurements are 1-179
degrees West OR East of the Prime Meridian.
Where is North Carolina?
 North Carolina is located at
approximately 35 degrees North
(latitude) and 80 degrees West
(longitude).
 35o N, 80o W
What are time zones?
 Earth is divided into 24 time zones.
 Every time zone spans 15 degrees
longitude.
 As you travel west across a map, time
shifts back ONE HOUR every 15
degrees longitude!
What are map legends?
 Map Legend: explains the symbols used
within a map.



Solid red lines for roads
Blue lines for rivers/creeks
Black squares for buildings


(legend courtesy of www.sunysb.edu)
(scales courtesy of www.junglephotos.com and
www.fes.uwaterloo.ca)
What is a map scale?
 Map scale: displays the ratio between
real-life distances and distances on a
map


1cm : 20 km
1 in : 250 mi
What is a topographic map?
 A topographic map measures:

SHAPE

ELEVATION
What is a topographic map?
What is a topographic map?
 Topographic map: uses ‘contour lines’
and symbols to represent changes in
elevation and features on Earth’s
surface.
What are contour lines?
 Contour line: a line that connects points
of equal elevation.
 Contour interval: the difference in
elevation between two side-by-side
contour lines.
What are contour lines?
 The closer together contour lines are on
a map, the steeper the slope is!!!
 The farther apart contour lines are on a
map, the gentler (flatter) the slope is!!!
What are topographic maps?
What are topographic maps?
 What is the contour interval?
 What is the elevation at Point A? B? C?
What are topographic maps?
 What is the contour interval?
 What is the highest elevation on this map?
 What is the lowest elevation on this map?
What are topographic maps?
 Where is the ‘flat’ section of this map?
 Where is the ‘sloped’ section of this map?
What is the basis of
chemistry?
 The atom: “unable to be cut”; the basic
unit of matter

Proton (+)
 Within

nucleus
Neutron (O)
 Within
nucleus
 Approximately the same mass of a proton.

Electron (-)
 Orbits
around nucleus
 1/1840 the mass of a proton!!!
What is the Periodic Table?
 Atomic Number

# of protons in an atom
 Mass Number



# of protons + # of neutrons in an atom
Mass Number – Atomic Number = # of
neutrons in an atom
The Periodic Table is organized
numerically by atomic number.
Atomic # Mass #
# of p+
# of n
# of e-
Carbon
6
12
6
6
6
Oxygen
8
16
8
8
8
Chlorine
17
35
17
18
17
Titanium
22
48
22
26
22
Gold
79
197
79
118
79
What are atoms?
 Atoms (elements) are usually
NEUTRAL…they have the same number
of protons as electrons.
 Isotopes have different numbers of
neutrons than regular elements.

Therefore, they have a different mass
number!!!
 Ions have different numbers of electrons
than regular elements.
What is a compound?
 A chemical compound is a substance
formed by the chemical combination of
two or more elements.


NaCl
H2O
 The MOLECULE is the smallest unit of
compounds.
What are the two types of
chemical bonds?
 Ionic Bonds


Electrons are TRANSFERRED between
atoms.
“+ vs. –” attraction
 Covalent Bonds

Electrons are SHARED between atoms.
What are properties of the
water molecule?
 Water is polar…there is a – charge on
the oxygen end and a + charge on the
hydrogen end.
 HYDROGEN BONDS can form between
water molecules (and anything else with
H,N,O)
What are properties of the water
molecule?
 Cohesion: water attracted to water
 Adhesion: water attracted to glass
Types of Substances
 Element: A substance that can’t be broken down
into simpler substances…made of the same type
of atom. (Carbon, Hydrogen, etc.)
 Compound: The combination of two or more
elements. (Water—H2O and Salt—NaCl)
 Mixture: Salt and Pepper

Can be PHYSICALLY separated!!!
 Solution: Mixture that cannot be physically
separated…particles are DISSOLVED in a liquid.

Solute (salt) + Solvent (water) = Solution (saltwater)
What are acids, bases, and
pHs?
 In a solution, H20 dissolves to form H+
and OH-.
 pH measures the ratio of H+ to OH- ions
in a solution.
What are acids, bases, and
pHs?
 Acid


pH 0.1 to 6.9
More H+ ions than OH- ions
 Base


pH 7.1 to 14
More OH- ions than H+ ions
What are acids, bases, and
pHs?
 Neutral Substance



pH 7
PURE WATER IS NEUTRAL!!!
H+ and OH- concentration is equal
What is a mineral?
 Mineral: Naturally occurring, inorganic
solid.



Composed of specific chemicals
Has a definite crystalline structure
Inorganic: NOT living
What is a mineral?
 There are over 3000 minerals in Earth’s
crust.
 Why are they important?



First tools made of IRON.
First buildings (Egypt/Greece) made of
CALCITE.
Many civilizations thrived with GOLD and
SILVER.
What is a mineral?
 Mineral crystals can be composed of SIX
different shapes.




Cubic
Tetragonal
Hexagonal
3 others
How do minerals form?
 1) Minerals can form from cooling
MAGMA.

If magma cools SLOWLY underground,
then the mineral crystals will be LARGE.

If magma cools QUICKLY above ground,
then the mineral crystals will be SMALL.
How do minerals form?
 2) Minerals can form from water solution.



The water can become OVERFILLED with
mineral particles, and these particles can
‘settle out’ of solution.
OR
The water can contain mineral particles,
the water evaporates, and the minerals
remain.
What are major mineral
groups?
 1) Silicates



Oxygen and Silicon
96% of all minerals
Quartz and feldspar
 2) Carbonates


Carbonate (CO3) and Oxygen
Calcite and dolomite
What are major mineral
groups?
 3) Oxides


Oxygen and a metal
Hematite and magnetite
 4) Halides
 Salts
 5) Native Elements

Silver, copper, gold
 6) Sulfates
 7) Sulfides
How do you ID minerals?
 1) Color

Least reliable way to ID.
 2) Luster


The way that a mineral reflects light from
its surface.
Metallic (shiny) or NONMETALLIC (dull)
 3) Texture


How does a mineral feel to the touch.
Smooth, rough, greasy, glassy
How do you ID minerals?
 4) Streak



The color of a mineral when it is broken up
and powdered.
Fool’s gold…greenish-black streak
Gold…yellow streak
 5) Hardness


A measure of how easily a mineral can be
scratched.
Mohs scale…1-10
How do you ID minerals?
 6) Cleavage

When a mineral breaks smoothly along flat
edges.
 7) Fracture
 When a mineral breaks along rough/jagged
edges.
 8) Density


D = Mass / Volume
Some minerals are more dense than others.
How are minerals used?
 Minerals are used to make…
 Computers
 Cars
 TVs
 Desks
 Roads
 Buildings
 Jewelry
 Paints
 Sports equipment
 Medicines
How are minerals used?
 Ore: a mineral that contains something
that can be mined for profit.


Hematite is an ore that contains IRON.
Bauxite is an ore that contains
ALUMINUM.
 Gem:


A mineral that is valuable…rare and pretty.
Ruby, emerald, diamond, etc.
(5.1) What are igneous rocks?
 Igneous rocks: rocks that are formed
from the crystallization of magma

Extrusive igneous rocks: have small
mineral grains; form when lava cools
quickly on Earth’s surface

Intrusive igneous rocks: have large
mineral grains; form when magma cools
slowly beneath Earth’s surface
What is magma made of?
 Magma is usually NOT just hot, melted
rock…it is a “slushy” mix of molten rock,
gases, and solid mineral crystals.
What is magma made of?
 Magma is made of the following
elements…
 Oxygen
(O)
 Silicon (Si)
 Aluminum (Al)
 Iron (Fe)
 Magnesium (Mg)
 Calcium (Ca)
 Potassium (K)
 Sodium (Na)
What factors affect magma
formation?
 Factors that affect mineral formation…
 1) Temperature

The higher the temperature, the more
easily rock melts!
 2) Pressure

The lower the pressure, the more easily
the rock melts!
What factors affect magma
formation?
 3) Water Content

The more water in the rock, the more
easily the rock melts!
 4) Mineral Composition

Continental crust usually melts more easily
than oceanic crust!
(5.2) How are igneous rocks
classified?
 1) MINERAL CONTENT
 Felsic rocks: light-colored, high silica
content, contain quartz and feldspar
 Mafic rocks: dark-colored, lower silica
content, contain iron (Fe) and magnesium
(Mg)
 Ultramafic rocks: very dark-colored, very
low silica content, very high levels of Fe and
Mg
How are igneous rocks
classified?
 2) GRAIN SIZE
 Coarse-grained rocks
 Fine-grained (glassy) rocks
How are igneous rocks
classified?
 3) Texture
 Rocks formed of well-shaped mineral
crystals (perfect cubes)
 Rocks formed of irregular mineral
crystals
Why are igneous rocks
important?
 Igneous rocks are STRONG and
RESISTANT TO WEATHERING, so they
are used for…
 Kitchen
counters
 Gravestones/Monuments
 Buildings
Why are igneous rocks
important?
 Mineral ores are usually found within or
near igneous rock!!!

Veins: mineral-rich fluid fills cracks in
mountains…these cracks cool and solidify
to form veins that can be mined
 GOLD
in SIERRA-NEVADA MOUNTAINS
Why are igneous rocks
important?
 Pegmatites: extremely large-grained
mineral deposits found within some
veins


Lithium
Jewels
Why are igneous rocks
important?
 Kimberlites: deep, pipe-like igneous
rock formations


A type of ULTRAMAFIC rock
Often contain diamonds
(6.1) What is a sedimentary
rock?
 Sedimentary rock: rock formed from
sediment that is cemented together
How do sedimentary rocks
form?
 1) WEATHERING: exposed rocks on
Earth’s crust is worn away



Chemical weathering: minerals in a rock
are dissolved or changed
Physical weathering: rock fragments
simply break off the larger rock
THESE SMALL PIECES OF ROCK THAT
BREAK OFF ARE CALLED SEDIMENTS!
How do sedimentary rocks
form?
 2) EROSION & TRANSPORT: removal
and movement of surface materials from
one location to another location




Wind
Moving water
Gravity
Glaciers
How do sedimentary rocks
form?
 3) DEPOSITION: the ‘laying down’ of
sediments on the ground (or on the
bottom of a body of water).


This occurs when erosion & transport
STOPS.
LARGER sediment grains deposit on the
bottom, while SMALLER grains are on top.
 Boulder,
cobble, pebble, sand, silt, clay
How do sedimentary rocks
form?
 4) BURIAL: sediments are buried under
newer sediments
 5) LITHIFICATION: the processes that
transform sediments into sedimentary
rocks!

Usually high temperatures and pressures
resulting from deep BURIAL.
How does lithification occur?
 5-A) Air and water pockets are
squeezed out of the sediment.
 5-B) Cementation occurs…mineral
growth “glues” sediment grains into solid
rock
What are some features of
sedimentary rocks?
 Features of sedimentary rocks include…

1) Bedding: horizontal layering
 Larger
sediments on bottom, smaller
sediments on top.

2) Ripple marks: signal past wave (water)
or wind action
What are some features of
sedimentary rocks?
 3) Fossils: evidence of past life




Footprints
Shells
Bones
Plants
(6.2) How are sedimentary
rocks classified?
 There are THREE main types of
sedimentary rocks



1) Clastic
2) Chemical
3) Organic
How are sedimentary rocks
classified?
How are sedimentary rocks
classified?
How are sedimentary rocks
classified?
 2) Chemical sedimentary rocks


Rocks that form when dissolved minerals
settle out of a body of water (or when
dissolved minerals are exposed after the
water dries up).
Called EVAPORITES….found near bodies
of water!
 Rock
salt
 Gypsum
How are sedimentary rocks
classified?
How are sedimentary rocks
classified?
 3) Organic sedimentary rocks

Rocks that are formed from the remains of
once-living things.

Limestone…formed from sea shells
Coal…formed from dead swamp plants

Why are sedimentary rocks
important?
 Sedimentary rocks are important
because…
 1) We can learn about Earth’s history by
looking at fossils that are preserved only
in sedimentary rocks.
Why are sedimentary rocks
important?
 2) Energy sources are found in sedimentary
rocks.








Coal
Oil
Natural gas
Uranium (nuclear power)
Phosphate (fertilizer)
Limestone (cement)
Iron (steel)
Sandstone (buildings)
(6.3) What are metamorphic
rocks?
 Metamorphic rocks: Rocks formed from
metamorphism….high pressures and
high temperatures very deep within
Earth.

Rocks CHANGE while remaining
SOLID…they don’t melt!!
What are metamorphic rocks?
 3 Types of Metamorphism



1) Regional metamorphism: high
temperatures and pressures affect large
areas of Earth’s crust
2) Contact metamorphism: molten rocks
come in contact with solid rocks, causing
temperature increases
3) Hydrothermal metamorphism: same as
‘contact’, but with hot water instead of lava
What are metamorphic rocks?
 2 Types of Metamorphic Textures

1) Foliated
 Wavy

layers and bands of minerals
2) Nonfoliated
 ‘Blocky’
crystal shapes instead of bands
What are metamorphic rocks?
 RULE:
 The higher the heat/pressure, the
stronger the rock!
 Metamorphic rocks are just igneous or
sedimentary rocks that have been
changed underground!
What is the rock cycle?
Ch. 17 Vocab: 5 terms
 P. 443 (continental drift, Pangaea)
 P. 448 (seafloor spreading)
 P. 455 (theory of plate tectonics,
subduction)
Are the continents really moving?
 There are 3 layers that make up Earth.
 Crust….rigid and rocky
 Mantle…like modeling clay
 Core…molten metal with a hard center
Are the continents really moving?
Are the continents really moving?
 YES!!! Land masses are moving at high
speeds (for land, at least).

South America & Africa
 Moving

Hawaii
 Moving

apart at 2-3 cm/year
northwest at 8-9 cm/year
Mount Everest
 Moving
up…it is getting taller!
What is continental drift?
 Alfred Wegener observed this
movement, and called this land
movement “continental drift”.
What is continental drift?
 Continental drift:


Earth’s continents had once been joined as
a single landmass called PANGAEA.
About 200 million years ago, Pangaea
began to break apart to form the continents
that we know today.
Why did Wegener believe in
continental drift?
 3 forms of evidence:

1) Rock Formations
 Appalachian
Mtn. rocks are same as
European rocks

2) Fossils
 Found

plant/animal fossils in weird places
3) Climate
 Coal
in Antarctica….coal comes from tropical
swamp plants!!!
What is continental drift?
What is continental drift?
 Wegener’s “continental drift” hypothesis
was not accepted by most
scientists….they didn’t believe that the
continents were really moving.
 Continental drift was not accepted until
the 1960’s when new evidence was
discovered!!!
What evidence led to the
acceptance of continental drift?
 Analysis of the ocean floor showed:

Rock samples near mid-ocean ridges
(middle of the ocean) were young
Rock samples farther away from midocean ridges (edges of the ocean) were
old

OLD  YOUNG  OLD

What evidence led to the
acceptance of continental drift?
 Analysis of the ocean floor showed:



Level of sediment is thin in the middle of
the ocean.
Level of sediment is thick at the edges of
the ocean.
THICK  THIN  THICK
What is seafloor spreading?
What is seafloor spreading?
 Seafloor spreading: new ocean crust is
formed at mid-ocean ridges…

When this crust is formed, older crust is
pushed outward, which spreads out the
ocean floor.
What is seafloor spreading?
What is seafloor spreading?
What is seafloor spreading?
 SO…..seafloor spreading explains HOW
continental drift works.
 The seafloor “spreads” at the middle of
the ocean, and the continents are
pushed away from each other.

The continents are just along for the ride
that seafloor spreading provides for them!
What is plate tectonics?
 The theory of plate tectonics:

Earth’s crust and upper mantle are broken
into enormous, movable slabs called plates

There are 12-15 major plates on Earth
What is plate tectonics?
What are plate boundaries?
 Earth’s plates come together at
BOUNDARIES.
 There are 3 types of boundaries.
What are plate boundaries?
 1) Divergent boundaries

Places where two tectonic plates move
apart from each other.

Mid-Ocean Ridges are divergent
boundaries!!
What are plate boundaries?
 2) Convergent boundaries

Places where two tectonic plates move
toward each other.
What are plate boundaries?

Three types of convergent boundaries
 Oceanic-Oceanic
 Oceanic-Continental
 Continental-Continental
 At oceanic-oceanic AND oceanic-continental
convergent boundaries, SUBDUCTION occurs.

Subduction: one plate moves underneath the other
plate, and then melts, creating volcanoes.
What are plate boundaries?
 At continental-continental convergent
boundaries, ‘folded’ mountains are
formed!!
 Mt. Everest in the Himalayas (India-
China)
 Appalachian Mountains (North AmericaAfrica)
What are plate boundaries?
What are plate boundaries?
 3) Transform boundaries

Places where two plates slide past each
other side-by-side.
What are plate boundaries?
What is orogeny?
 Orogeny: the processes that form all
mountain ranges
 Mountains form at CONVERGENT plate
boundaries.
How do mountains form?
 Oceanic-oceanic convergence: volcanic
“island arc” mountains….islands in the
ocean!!!
 Oceanic-continental convergence:
volcanic mountains AND mountains
formed by the uplift of continental crust
by the subducted oceanic plate
How do mountains form?
 Continental-continental convergence: no
subduction occurs during collision of two
plates, so rock just folds upward

Earth’s tallest mountains are formed in this
way!!
How did the Appalachian
Mountains form?
 1) North America and Africa collided,
forming volcanic mountains in between
the continents.

These mountains were then pushed over
top of North American, forming the Blue
Ridge Mountains
How did the Appalachian
Mountains form?
 2) Africa and North America continued to
collide, causing the rest of the
Appalachian Mountains to form.
What other mountain types
exist?
 1) Divergent boundary mountains

Mid-ocean ridges
 2) Nonboundary mountains
 Uplifted mountains---forced upward from
forces UNDERNEATH them…not from
boundary collisions


Fault-block mountains---occur near faults
and move due to fault movements
Volcanic peaks
What causes earthquakes?
 Forces within the earth cause gigantic
vibrations, which are earthquakes!!
 These forces are called STRESS and
STRAIN.
What are faults?
 Fault: fracture of rock that occurs during
breakage due to too much stress
What are faults?
 Three types of faults:

1) Reverse
 “pushed

2) Normal
 “pulled

together”
apart”
3) Strike-slip
 “slide
past each other”
What are faults?
 Normal

slide
 Reverse

overhang
 Strike-slip

misalignment
What are earthquake waves?
 Earthquakes are caused by
vibrations….the vibrations are caused by
seismic waves!!!
What are earthquake waves?
 Three types of waves…

1) Primary (P) waves
 Squeeze-and-pull

2) Secondary (S) waves
 Up-and-down

motion
motion
3) Surface waves
 Side-to-side
motion
Other earthquake terms…
 Focus: where an earthquake originates

UNDERGROUND!!
 Epicenter: the point on the surface of
the Earth that is directly above the focus
Other earthquake terms…
What is seismology?
 Seismology: the study of earthquake
waves
 Seismographs: sensitive instruments
that detect vibrations within the Earth
How do scientists locate the
epicenter of an earthquake?
 P-waves travel FASTER than S-waves!!
 The time between the arrival of the P-
wave and the S-wave of an earthquake
at a recording station is directly related
to HOW FAR AWAY the earthquake is
from the station.


Big gap between P and S waves- far away
Small gap between P and S waves- close
How do scientists locate the
epicenter of an earthquake?
 Scientists need data from THREE
recording stations in order to pinpoint the
epicenter of an earthquake.
How do scientists locate the
epicenter of an earthquake?
How do scientists measure
earthquake strength?
 Magnitude: the amount of energy
released during an earthquake
 Richter scale: most common method of
measuring earthquakes


Below 2.0…quake is barely noticeable
Above 7.0…quake is very destructive
How do scientists measure
earthquake strength?
 Modified Mercalli scale: measures
earthquakes based on the amount of
damage the quake causes



I. Not felt
V. Felt by everyone. Dishes and windows
break.
XII. Damage is total. Objects are thrown
upward into the air.
How do scientists measure
earthquake strength?
Where do earthquakes occur?
 Most earthquakes occur near plate
boundaries!!




80% of all quakes occur in the Ring of Fire!
15% of all quakes occur across southern
Europe and Asia
4% of all quakes occur along mid-ocean
ridges.
1% of all quakes occur randomly (like in
NC)
Where do earthquakes occur?
What factors are related to
earthquake damage?
 Most deaths during quakes are caused
by building collapses.

Stone, concrete, and mud buildings
collapse most easily.

Wooden and steel buildings are safest.
What other damage is caused
by earthquakes?
 Landslides: rock and mud falls down
steeply-sloping areas.

30,000 people were killed by landslides in
Peru after a 1978 quake.
 Soil liquefaction: vibrations cause soil to
turn into ‘quicksand’, which causes
houses to collapse or sink into the
ground.
What other damage is caused
by earthquakes?
 Tsunami: large ocean wave generated
by vertical shaking of the seafloor

120,000 (or more) people killed in 2004 by
a tsunami caused by an earthquake
beneath the Indian Ocean
Who is at risk for an
earthquake?
 Areas that have had many earthquakes
in the past WILL have many earthquakes
in the future!!
(21.1) How old is Earth?
 Earth is about 4.6 billion years old….that
is 4,600 million years!!!
 Geologic time scale: Earth’s timeline of
history

Divided into Eons
 Divided

into Eras
Divided into Periods
 Divided into Epochs
How old is Earth?
How is time measured?
 Eon (longest): each eon is billions of
years
 Era: each era is hundreds of millions (to
billions) of years
 Periods: tens of millions (to hundreds of
millions) of years
 Epochs (shortest): millions (to tens of
millions) of years
(21.2) How do we determine
how old rocks are?
 There are 2 ways to determine the age
of rocks.

1) Relative age dating: comparing one
rock to another and determining if it is
“older” of “younger” than the other one

2) Absolute age dating: finding the EXACT
age of a rock by using radioactive
chemicals
What is relative age dating?
 The Principle of Uniformitarianism:
processes (i.e. the rock cycle) that are
occurring today on Earth have been
occurring in the same way since Earth
formed
 The Principle of Original Horizontality:
Sedimentary rocks are deposited in
horizontal layers
What is relative age dating?
 The Principle of Superposition: In an
UNDISTURBED rock bed, the oldest
rocks are at the bottom, with younger
rocks at the top.
 The Principle of Cross-Cutting
Relationships: An intrusion (dike or sill
of magma) or a fault (shift) is YOUNGER
than the rock it cuts across.
What is relative age dating?
 Unconformity: a rock surface that
exhibits erosion (it appears to be rough)
p. 560 Book Quiz
 1) Which rock is the oldest in the diagram?
 2) An unconformity exists between which two
layers of rock. Explain your answer!
 3) What type of material makes up part ‘A’ in the
diagram?
 4) Why do the rock layers on the left side not
match up with the rocks on the right?
 5) Using ‘A’ through ‘I’ and ‘N’, label the rocks
from OLDEST to YOUNGEST.
(21.3) What is absolute age
dating?
 Absolute age dating: finding the exact
age of an object using radioactive
elements

Radioactive elements decay from one
chemical to another chemical over time!
 Carbon-14
 The

 Nitrogen-14
HALF-LIFE of C-14 is 5730 years.
# of years that it takes for HALF of C-14 to
decay into N-14.
What is absolute age dating?
Time 1
%
parent
100
%
Years
daughter
0
0
# of halflives
0
Time 2
50
50
5730
1
Time 3
25
75
11560
2
Time 4
12.5
87.5
17090
3
How else can we determine
absolute (exact) age?
 Dendrochronology: comparing tree rings
to past events
How else can we determine
absolute (exact) age?

You can tell…
 Age
of tree
 Condition of environment during each specific
year


Tree rings are far apart  lots of growth that
year  that year must have had a good
environment
Tree rings are close together  little growth
 that year must have had a poor
environment for growth
How else can we determine
absolute (exact) age?
 Key beds: layers of rock that are known
to have come from a specific time in
history and can be used as a time
reference.

Example—Mt. St. Helens erupted in 1980 and
spewed out ash. This ash settled to the ground to
form a “key bed” of ash. We now know that any
rock layer BELOW this ash was formed before
1980 and any rock layer ABOVE this ash was
formed after 1980.
(21.4) What are fossils?
 Fossils: evidence of once-living things
 There are many different types of
fossils…
 1) original preservation: (permineralized
fossil) soft and hard parts of an organism
have not changed since death

Mummified humans
What are fossils?
 2) Altered hard parts: all fleshy material
is removed, and the hard parts are
replaced by minerals.

Petrified wood
What are fossils?
 3) Index fossil: fossil that can be used
from scientists to date a specific layer of
rock….the species must have lived for a
short time.
 4) Mold: hollowed-out impression of a
shell, plant, etc.
What are fossils?
 5) Cast: hollowed-out impression is filled
in with sediment or minerals
 6) Trace fossils: indirect evidence of life,
such as worm trails, footprints, and
“petrified poop” (not an actual organism)
Chapter 22 Overview
 Rock samples studied by scientists have
been dated (using absolute age dating)
at approximately 4.6 billion years old, so
that is how old Earth must be!
How did Earth heat up?
 3 sources of heat for early Earth…
 1) Radioactive elements gave off heat.
 2) Impact of asteroids and meteorites
caused huge (hot) explosions.
 3) Greenhouse effect…”blanket” of air
surrounding Earth.
How did Earth’s crust form?
 Earth used to be a hot, molten ball!!
 Over time, the hot rock (within the
mantle) cooled, forming a rocky crust.

Then, the rock cycle began and
sedimentary and metamorphic rock joined
the igneous rock!
How did Earth’s atmosphere
form?
 During early Earth, hydrogen and helium
dominated the atmosphere.
 And…

H2O, CO2, Nitrogen gas, carbon monoxide,
and other gases vented from volcanoes
How did oxygen form in
Earth’s atmosphere?
 Oxygen formed on earth by….
 Bacteria (3.5 bybp) used photosynthesis
to “breathe” carbon dioxide and release
OXYGEN. Slowly, the oxygen levels
increased to a point that could support
more advanced life.
How did oxygen form in
Earth’s atmosphere?
 We KNOW that oxygen was present in
Earth’s early atmosphere because…
 “red beds” of iron oxide (rust) was found
in rocks.


Iron oxide CAN’T form unless oxygen is
present.
These “red” rocks were dated by scientists
to be 3.5 billi²耀 years old.
How did oceans form on
Earth?
 Oceans formed on Earth from two water
sources.

1) Volcanoes spewed out steam
(evaporated water), which later cooled and
condensed into liquid water.

2) Comets (balls of ice) crashed into Earth
from outer space and melted.
How did life form on Earth?
 Miller-Urey experiment: mixed
hydrogen, methane, and ammonia to
simulate early atmosphere.


Added sparks to simulate lightning.
Soon, organic molecules were discovered,
which could have turned into life!!!
How did life form on Earth?

Life likely started in oceans, either in
shallow surface waters or on the
ocean floor at hydrothermal vents.
(11.1) KNOW YOUR
VOCABULARY!!!
 It is extremely important to be familiar
with…






Ozone
Troposphere
Stratosphere
Mesosphere
Thermosphere
Exosphere
How is heat transferred?
 1) Conduction: the transfer of energy through
TOUCH

STOVETOP IS HOT…PAN IS COLD…PUT PAN ON
STOVE…HEAT MOVES FROM STOVE TO PAN…PAN
GETS HOT
 2) Convection: the transfer of energy through FLOW
(convection current)

BOILING WATER…HOT WATER RISES WHILE COOL
WATER SINKS…FORMING A CYCLE…”CONVECTION
CURRENT”….WE SEE AS BUBBLES
 3) Radiation: the transfer of energy through SPACE
 FIREPLACE IS HOT…ROOM IS COLD…HEAT TRAVELS
FROM FIREPLACE THROUGH SPACE IN
ROOM…ROOM BECOMES HOT
(11.2) What is the difference
between temperature and heat?
 Temperature: a measurement of how
fast the molecules of a material move
around



“Hot”: molecules move FAST
“Cold”: molecules move SLOWLY
Measured by F, C, or K
 Fahrenheit,
Celsius, or Kelvin
What is the difference between
temperature and heat?
 Heat: the transfer of energy that occurs
due to a difference in temperature
between two materials

Energy flows from on object of higher
temp. to an object of lower temp.
What is wind? What is
humidity?
 Wind: movement of air caused by
temperature/pressure/density differences
between two air masses.
 Humidity: the amount of water vapor in the
air
 Relative humidity: when it reaches 100%, it
rains…the air can’t hold any more water!
(11.3) How do clouds form?
 Clouds form when warm, moist air rises,
expands, and cools.

Water forms around particles of salt or dust
in the sky to form water droplets.
What are the major types of
clouds?
 Types of clouds…
 See table 11-3 on p. 287!!!
 Combine HEIGHT word and SHAPE
word to create cloud name…
 Strato = low; Alto = middle; Cirro = high
 Cirrus = hair; Cumulus = puffy pile;
Stratus = sheet; Nimbus = dark rain
cloud
What causes precipitation?
 Coalescence: small water droplets
combining to form larger droplets that
then FALL out of the cloud by the act of
gravity
(12.1) What is meteorology?
 Meteorology: the study of atmospheric
processes and events….”meteor” means
high in the air
What is the difference between
weather and climate?
 Weather: current state of the
atmosphere….it changes daily!!!
 Climate: long-term variations in weather
over a geographic area

The angle (and intensity) of sunlight is the
major factor that determines climate
 More
direct at Equator = tropics
 More indirect at Poles = arctic region
What is an air mass?
 Air mass: large body of air that is
influenced by the area over which it
forms





Continental tropical (cT): warm and dry
Maritime tropical (mT): warm and humid
Continental polar (cP): cold and dry
Maritime polar (mP): cold and humid
Arctic (A): same as cP, but MUCH colder!!
What is an air mass?
 All of these air masses MOVE and
INTERACT, which causes WIND,
STORMS, and all other WEATHER!!!
(12.2) What are weather
systems?
 There are many types of weather
systems….
 1) Permanent wind systems



Trade winds
Prevailing winds
Polar easterlies
What are weather systems?
 2) Jet streams: narrow bands of high-
altitude, fast-moving winds
 3) Fronts: narrow region separating two
DIFFERENT air masses



Cold fronts: causes clouds, rain
Warm fronts: causes clouds, rain
Stationary fronts: two fronts collide and
“stall”
(P. 308-309)
What are weather systems?
 4) Pressure systems: cause pressure
changes that allow air to move in a
rotating motion


High pressure system: usually good
weather
Low pressure system: usually stormy
weather
(12.3) Weather Data
 Thermometer: measures temperature (a
liquid expands when heated and fills up
a tube)
 Barometer: measures air pressure

Pressure drop = future storm!
Weather Data
 Anenometer: measures wind speed
 Hygrometer: measures humidity
 Ceilometer: measures height of cloud
layers
Weather Data
 Radar: radar waves bounce off of large
raindrops (but not small droplets within
clouds)
 Satellite: tracks clouds (but not
necessarily rain)
(12.4) How is weather
analyzed?
 Isobar maps: “topographic maps” for
pressure differences

The closer together the ‘isobar lines’, the
faster the wind speed!!!

How accurate are weather forecasts?
 ACCURATE
from 1-3 days
 INACCURATE from 4-7 days (or more)
(13.1) What are
thunderstorms?
 At any point in time, about 2,000
thunderstorms are occurring on Earth!!!
 3 conditions are needed for formation…
 1) Lots of moisture in lower atmosphere
 2) Air must be lifted/cooled so moisture can
condense into liquid water

3) The moist air mass must be unstable so
it can continue to rise (so that the cloud
gets big!)
What are thunderstorms?
 Air-mass thunderstorms (temperature
differences between 2 air masses)


Mountain thunderstorms
Sea-breeze thunderstorms
 Frontal thunderstorms (produced by
advancing cold fronts)
What are thunderstorms?
 3 stages of a thunderstorm…



1) Cumulus stage: air rises and cools so
that moisture condenses into liquid drops
2) Mature stage: precipitation forms and
downdrafts/updrafts (winds) form
3) Dissipation stage: winds/energy/
precipitation “run out” and the
thunderstorm ends
(13.2) What other weather occurs
along with thunderstorms?
 Supercells: the most SEVERE
thunderstorms with high winds
 Lightning: electricity caused by rapid air
movement within cumulonimbus clouds

5 times hotter than the sun!!!
What other weather occurs
along with thunderstorms?
 Hail: frozen water droplets that form
within clouds
 Floods: occur when storm systems
move SLOWLY
 Tornadoes: occur when wind speed and
direction change suddenly

Fujita scale: F1 (least) to F5 (most severe)
(13.3) Tropical Storms
 Tropical cyclones: large, rotating, low-
pressure storms
Tropical Storms
 Steps in tropical storm formation…



1) Warm ocean water evaporates, then
condenses to form clouds
2) Low pressure area develops in the
middle of clouds
3) Pressure differences cause rotating
winds to form
Tropical Storms
Tropical Storms
 Saffir-Simpson scale: categorizes
hurricanes

Category 1 (weak)  Category 5 (strong)

Storm Surge: winds drive a mound of
ocean water over land
(13.4) Other Weather Events
 Droughts: extended periods of well-
below-normal rainfall
 Heat waves: extended periods of hot
weather
 Cold waves: extended periods of cold
weather

Wind-chill factor: takes into account the
effect of winds on temperature
(Ch. 14) What is climate?
 Climatology: study of Earth’s climate
and factors that influence climate change
 Causes of climate…
 1) Latitude: sun’s rays are more direct at
the equator and less direct at the poles
 2) Water/mountain effects
 Coastal
areas are more mild year-round;
mountain areas are usually cooler

3) Air masses: mT, cT, mP, cP, A
What is climate?
 Koeppen classification system: way of
classifying climates using temperature
and precipitation
What is climate?
 Microclimate: localized climate that is
different from the overall regional climate

Mountaintops, cities, etc.

Heat island: presence of concrete
buildings/blacktop  increased
temperature
What is climate?
 Climates CHANGE over time!!!





Ice ages
Seasons (every year)
El Nino: warm ocean current off South
America that affects worldwide weather
Solar (sun) activity
Volcanic activity
What is climate?
 Climate can be changed by HUMANS…

(“An Inconvenient Truth”)
(9.1) How does water move on
Earth?
 On Earth, water is transported
throughout the WATER CYCLE.
 Evaporation: liquid to gas
 Condensation: gas to liquid
 Precipitation: liquid falling from
atmosphere to ground
What is the water cycle?
 Runoff: water falls to surface, and runs
ALONG surface into larger body of water
 Seepage: water falls to surface, then
soaks into the ground into groundwater
 Transpiration: evaporation through plant
leaves
What determines whether water
will seep into the ground or
become runoff?
 4 conditions determine whether seepage
or runoff will occur…
 1) Vegetation: more plants/grasses =
more seepage; less plants/grasses =
more runoff
 2) Rate of precipitation: light rain = more
seepage; heavy rain = more runoff
What determines whether water
will seep into the ground or
become runoff?
 3) Soil composition: coarse-particle soil
(sand) = more seepage; fine-particle soil
(clay) = more runoff
 4) Slope: flat ground = more seepage;
steeply-sloped ground = more runoff
What are streams?
 Stream: body of water that flows
downslope to lower elevation

Rivers, creeks, brooks
What are stream systems?
 Watershed: all land area whose water
drains into a single stream system
 Divide: high land area that separates
one watershed from another
What is a stream load?
 Stream load: all materials carried within
a stream


Living: bacteria, algae, plants, fish, snails
Non-living: sediments, gases, minerals
What is a stream load?
 There are 3 ways in which a stream can
carry its load…
 1) Solution: material is totally dissolved
in stream water
What is a stream load?
 2) Suspension: material is not dissolved,
but is small and light enough to be
carried with the water current
 3) Bed load: sediment that is too large
to be carried with current, but is rolled or
dragged along stream bottom

Pebbles, boulders, etc.
What is stream discharge?
 Discharge: the volume of stream water
that flows over a specific location during
a period of time
 Discharge = width x depth x velocity
 Mississippi River has largest stream
discharge in the U.S.
What is a flood?
 Flood: occurs when water spills over the
sides of a stream’s banks onto nearby
land
 Floodplain: broad, flat area that extends
out from a stream’s bank and is covered
by water during flooding
(9.2) How do streams behave?
 As a stream develops, it changes in
shape, width, and size.

It also changes the landscape over which it
flows.
 Creates
valleys, etc.
How do streams behave?
 Streams form at the “headwaters”,
usually at a high elevation.
 Over time, a stream carves a stream
channel.

Stream channel: a narrow pathway in
sediment or rock in which water flows.
How do streams behave?
 A stream is held within the confines of its
channel by the stream banks.

Stream banks: ground bordering a stream
on each side.
How do streams behave?
 At first, a stream erodes a V-shaped
valley until it reaches its base level,
where it will then join another body of
water.

Straight, narrow
 As streams get larger, they form wider U-
shaped valleys.

Meandering (bendy or curvy)
How do streams behave?
 Sometimes, OXBOW LAKES are formed
when a stream blocks off its original
path.
How do streams behave?
 As the slope of a stream decreases, its
velocity decreases, and its ability to carry
sediment also decreases.

This usually happens when streams “dead
end” into a large body of water.
 Delta: triangular deposit that forms
where a stream enters a large body of
water
(9.3) What is a lake?
 Lake: a depression within the surface
materials of a landscape that
COLLECTS and HOLDS water
 Lakes are always changing…

Over time, lakes usually fill in with
sediment until they no longer exist!
What is eutrophication?
 Eutrophication: process by which lakes
become rich in nutrients, resulting in the
change of species “residents” over time

Lake nutrients: nitrogen, phosphorus,
animal waste, factory toxins
What is a wetland?
 Wetland: land area that is covered by
water for most of the year

Bogs, marshes, swamps

Bog: receive water only from rain
Marsh: form along deltas and near
oceans/sounds
Swamp: low-lying areas near streams


(10.1) What is the
hydrosphere?
 Hydrosphere: all of Earth’s water


97% of hydrosphere is in oceans
3% is freshwater
 Most
freshwater is in ice caps!
 0.31% of total water is GROUNDWATER
 0.091% of total water is in lakes/streams
 So….groundwater
to survive!
IS important. We need it
How do groundwater deposits
form?
 Most precipitation undergoes
seepage…only a small % runs off.

So, most water undergoes INFILTRATION
(seeps into the ground) and becomes
groundwater!!

This water infiltrates the ground through
pores, or spaces, within Earth’s surface.
How do groundwater deposits
form?
 Porosity: the amount of pores within a
material.

Groundwater is stored within the pore
spaces that are in surface/underground
materials!

The depth underground when water fills
ALL of the pores of a material is called the
ZONE OF SATURATION.
How do groundwater deposits
form?
 The WATER TABLE is the upper
boundary of the zone of saturation.
How do groundwater deposits
form?
 The ZONE OF AERATION is the area
above the water table, where rock/soil
pores contain mostly AIR instead of
WATER.
What are rules of the water
table?
 Water tables are usually…



1) Close to the surface along streams,
lakes and swamps.
2) Far from the surface in deserts and
mountainous/hilly areas.
3) Dependent upon rainfall…tables rise
during rainy periods and fall during
droughts.
How does groundwater
behave?
 Groundwater usually flows downhill and
moves through rocks/soils with HIGH
PERMEABILITY.

Permeability: ability of a material to let
water pass through
 Large
pores = high permeability
 Small pores = low permeability
How does groundwater
behave?
 Aquifers: permeable rock/soil layers in
which groundwater flow takes place.
(10.2) How does groundwater
conduct erosion?
 Most rainwater is slightly acidic, because
the water mixes with carbon dioxide to
form CARBONIC ACID.

This acid can “burn” or “eat” through
underground rocks to form caves,
sinkholes, etc.
How does groundwater
conduct erosion?
 Cave: natural underground opening with
a connection to Earth’s surface

Forms when carbonic acid (in water)
dissolves limestone (which is soft).
 Mammoth
Cave (Kentucky)
 Carlsbad Caverns (New Mexico)
How does groundwater
conduct erosion?
 Sinkhole: “crater” usually caused by the
collapse of a small cave
What else is in groundwater?
 There are many materials dissolved in
groundwater.

Sulfur
Calcium, Magnesium, Iron (“hard water”)

Calcium Carbonate

 Slalactites
(ceiling) and Stalagmites (floor)
(10.3) How does groundwater
behave?
 Most groundwater STAYS underground
for 100-300 years!!!
 Throughout this time, it is found in
SPRINGS, AQUIFERS, CAVES, and
WELLS before it returns to the surface.
How does groundwater
behave?
 Spring: location where an aquifer meets
Earth’s surface and groundwater is
discharged.
How does groundwater
behave?
 The water temperature of most springs is
near the average yearly air temperature
at that location.
 Exceptions…
 Hot springs: water is hotter than the
human body (98.6 degrees)
 Geysers: explosive hot springs

Old Faithful
How does groundwater
behave?
 Wells: holes dug or drilled deep into the
ground to reach a reservoir of
groundwater
What threatens our water
supply?
 Threats to our water supply include…


Overuse
Pollution
 Sewage
 Factory
Waste
 Landfills
 Agricultural Products


Chemicals and Salt
Radon (radioactive)
(15.1) What is oceanography?
 Oceanography: the scientific study of
Earth’s oceans

The ocean is studied using computer
imaging, sonar, submarines, etc.
How did oceans form on
Earth?
 Earth’s water likely came from 2 sources
 1) Icy comets and meteors from outer
space (hit Earth and melt into water)
 2) Volcanic eruptions

Steam from volcanoes cooled and
condensed into liquid water
What are oceans?
 97% of Earth’s water is saltwater in
oceans, seas, and gulfs
 Sea level: level of the oceans’ surfaces


Rises and falls as ice melts and refreezes
Currently rising ~1-2mm per year
What are oceans?
 About 71% of Earth’s surface is covered
by oceans
 ALL oceans are connected




Major oceans are…
1) Atlantic
2) Pacific (largest)
3) Indian
 4)
Arctic Ocean (north pole)
 5) Antarctic Ocean (south pole)
What are seas?
 Sea: smaller than oceans, contains
saltwater, partly or mostly surrounded by
land



Mediterranean Sea
Black Sea
Caribbean Sea
(15.2) What is saltwater?
 Natural saltwater = 96.5% water and
3.5% dissolved salts (mostly NaCl)
 Salinity: measure of dissolved salts in
seawater

Lower salinities in rainy, tropical areas
 More

water to dissolve salts
Higher salinities in dry areas
 More
evaporation of water
Where does sea salt come
from?
 Sea salt comes from…




Volcanic gases
Rocks in Earth’s crust
Minerals in Earth’s crust
Sea creatures REMOVE salt from the
water to make their shells, bones, and
teeth!
What is saltwater?
 Saltwater is more dense (thicker) than
freshwater.
 Saltwater has a lower freezing point than
freshwater.

It needs to be COLDER than 32 degrees
for saltwater to freeze.
What are the layers of the
ocean?
 Layers of the ocean include…



1) Surface layer: relatively warm and filled
with sunlight
2) Thermocline: transition from warm to
cold
3) Bottom layer: very cold and dark
(15.3) How does the ocean
move?
 Wave: rhythmic movement that carries
energy through space or matter (in this
case, ocean water)
What is a wave?
 Crest: highest point of a wave
 Trough: lowest point of a wave
 Wave height: up-and-down distance
between crest and trough
 Wavelength: side-to-side distance
between crest and crest (or trough and
trough)
What is a wave?
 A large amount of water, high winds, and
winds blowing for a long period of time
are the perfect recipe for BIG waves.
 Waves “break” near shore because they
lose their energy…they are ‘grinding’
against the shallow ocean bottom!!

Breaker: a collapsing wave
What are tides?
 Tide: periodic rise and fall of sea level

Daily tide cycles normally take 24hrs & 50
mins

Semidiurnal tides: two high tides per day
Mixed tides: one ‘big’ high tide and one
‘small’ high tide per day
Diurnal tides: one high tide per day


What causes tides?
 The attraction of gravity between the
sun, the moon, and Earth causes
tides…gravity “pulls” water in, then it
“pulls” the water back out!
What are ocean currents?
 Current: movement of water within an
ocean (a ‘river’ within the ocean)
 Gyres: circular currents
 Upwelling: vertical (upward) motion of
water

Cold bottom layer water moves towards
the surface
(16.1) What are some features
of the shoreline?
 A lot of erosion occurs at ocean
shorelines…the energy from the
crashing waves breaks down rocks.
 As a beach is worn down, many types of
rock formations may form.



Cliff
Sea stack (isolated rock towers)
Sea arches
What are some features of the
shoreline?
 Beach: sloping band of sand, pebbles,
gravel, or mud at the edge of the sea
What are some features of the
shoreline?
 The type of coastline that exists depends
on the type of source material




Rocky coastline = hard rocks
White, sandy coastline = quartz, etc.
Black, sandy coastline = volcanic rocks
Muddy coastline = sediment from nearby
rivers
What are estuaries?
 Estuary: area where a freshwater
stream meets the ocean

Saltwater/freshwater mix
What type of currents occur
near the shoreline?
 2 major types of currents occur near
shore…


1) Longshore current: current flowing
parallel to shore
2) Rip current: current flowing out from
shore (towards ocean) caused by a gap in
a sand bar
 Be familiar with the other shoreline
features on p. 417 (Figure 16-7)!!!
(16.2) What are the major
features of the seafloor?
 Using Section 16.2, draw a map of the seafloor.
Include ALL of the following:








Continental shelf
Continental slope
Continental rise
Abyssal plain
Mid-ocean ridge
Hydrothermal vent
Seamount
Deep-sea trench
(25.1) What are resources?
 Natural resources: items that can be
used by living things that are provided by
the Earth





Air
Water
Land
Animals/Plants
Nutrients & Minerals
What are resources?
 Renewable resources: resources that
can be used (forever), without causing a
decrease in the supply




Trees
Crops
Livestock
Sunlight
What are resources?
 Nonrenewable resources: resources
that exist in a fixed amount and
CANNOT be replaced in a short amount
of time



Diamonds
Oil
RENEWABLE RESOURCES CAN
BECOME NONRENEWABLE IF HUMANS
ARE NOT RESPONSIBLE WITH THEM!!!
Who uses natural resources?
 Natural resources are NOT distributed
evenly across Earth…countries that
have MORE natural resources are
usually MORE SUCCESSFUL



U.S.: Iron, Coal, Oil
Russia: Minerals
Saudi Arabia/Kuwait: Oil (LOTS!!!)
Who uses natural resources?
 The U.S. uses ~30% of the Earth’s
natural resources every year, even
though the U.S. only has ~6% of Earth’s
human population!
(25.2) Land Resources
 “Public Land” in the U.S. is protected in
order to preserve plants, animals, soil,
and minerals.


42% of all land in the U.S. is protected
“public land”
BUT…only 5% of this protected land is in
the eastern U.S.
 Most
protected land is in Alaska/Western U.S.
Land Resources
 Land resources include…
 1) TOPSOIL


It takes 1000 years to form 1-2 inches of
rich topsoil
Erosion and desertification (cropland
becomes desert) are becoming problems
resulting in fewer crops (food) being grown
Land Resources
 2) ROCK

Limestone, granite, marble mined and
used for buildings, flooring, etc.
 3) AGGREGATE

Mix of sand, stone, and pebbles used for
concrete and gravel.
 4) ORE

Rocks containing metals
 Iron
(for steel)!!!
Land Resources
 5) MINERALS

Salt, graphite, diamonds, etc.
(25.3) Air Resources
 Air is needed to be kept clean so that the
CO2  Oxygen cycle is not disrupted!!
 Air Pollution

Natural Sources
 Smoke,

gases, dust
Human Sources
 Burning
of coal, oil, gas, etc. (fossil fuels)
 Car exhaust = #1 source of pollution!!!
(25.4) Water Resources
 Only ~0.003% of Earth’s total water
supply is available for human use (all other
water is either salty, too far underground to use, or
frozen)
 Water is NEEDED for farming,
transportation, and for human life…65%
of our weight is water!!!
Water Resources
 25 countries (mostly in Africa)
experience droughts almost every year,
and by the year 2025, more than 90
countries will experience droughts.
 Desalination: the process of removing
salt from ocean water
(26.1) Energy Resources
 Solar (sun) energy is the original source
for ALL energy on Earth!!



1) Plants capture sun’s energy
2) Animals eat plants  stored energy is
transferred to animals
3) Plants that die before being eaten by
animals  fossil fuels (oil, coal, etc.)
Energy Resources
 Traditional Energy Resources





1) Wood
2) Field Crops (burned when wood is
unavailable)
3) Animal Poop (burned in poor countries)
4) Peat (rotten bricks of moss; used in
Northern Europe)
5) Fossil Fuels (coal, oil, gas)
(26.2) Alternative Energy
Resources
 Alternative Energy Resources

1) Solar energy
 Solar

heating, solar cookers, solar batteries
2) Water energy (Hydroelectric Power)
 Dams…moving




water turned TURBINES
3) Geothermal energy (Earth’s inner heat)
4) Wind energy (giant windmills)
5) Nuclear energy (efficient but dangerous)
6) Alternative Fuels
 Ethanol,
Biodiesel, Methanol
(26.3) How do we conserve
energy resources?
 In order to conserve Earth’s resources,
we MUST…

1) Make energy more EFFICIENT
 Use
resources in ways that are most
productive and least wasteful

2) Use more renewable resources (by
using alternative energy sources)
 Hydroelectric,
wind, solar, ethanol, etc.
How do we conserve energy
resources?
 Energy efficiency can be improved by…




1) Recycle old appliances & vehicles and
buy newer, more energy-efficient ones
2) Install solar panels on homes
3) Governments offer $$$ to people who
conserve energy
4) Use fluorescent lightbulbs in your house
 (Saves
~$100 per year in electric costs!!!)
How do we conserve energy
resources?


5) Use public transportation (buses, trains)
6) Use SUSTAINABLE ENERGY practices
 Manage
resource use to meet human needs
without causing environmental damage.