369 AP U.S. HISTORY
AMERICA: PAST AND PRESENT
EIGHTH EDITION
CHAPTER 30: THE TURBULENT SIXTIES
LEARNING TARGETS
1. Analyze Kennedy’s attitude toward the Cold War and nuclear armaments and the possible long-term
consequences vis-à-vis the Soviet Union
2. Summarize the main events and results of the Bay of Pigs landing the Cuban missile crisis
3. Compare and contrast the arguments for continued confrontation of conciliation with the Russians in the context
of the Cuban missile crisis
4. Understand the reasons for Americans buildup of military strength in Vietnam and how this escalation
undermined the Johnson administration
5. Describe the escalation of American involvement in the Vietnam War from 1965 to 1968
6. Explain why and how the year 1968 seemed to mark a turn point in the Vietnam War
7. Discuss the key elements of Kennedy’s domestic agenda
8. Summarize the key Supreme Court decision and their impact on reform of the early 1960’s
9. Explain the domestic successes of Lyndon Johnson
10. Analyze the key features of the cultural rebellion of the 1960’s
11. Compare the ethnic and women’s movements of this era
12. Summarize the historical that led to the return and success of Richard Nixon.
TERMS/PEOPLE TO KNOW
Kennedy / Nixon Debate (1960), pgs. 871-72
Massive Retaliation / Flexible Response (1960-1), p. 873
Berlin Wall Crisis (1961), pgs. 873-74
Ngo Dinh Diem / Ho Chi Minh (1961), p. 875
Cuba / Castro / Bay of Pigs (4/17/61), pgs. 875-76
Arms Race (1962-93), pg. 878
Cuban Missile Crisis (10/62), pgs. 876-77
Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee: SNCC (1963)
CORE / Freedom Riders (1961), p. 881
March on Washington (8/63), pgs. 881-83
Malcolm X (we will do this one in class together)
Gideon vs. Wainwright (1963), p. 883
Escobedo vs. Illinois (1964), p. 883
Miranda vs. Arizona (1966), p.883
Baker vs. Carr (1962), p. 883
Civil Rights Act (1963-64), pg. 885
THE OTHER AMERICA (1962), PG. 885
Great Society (…an unconditional War on Poverty) (1964)
Election of 1964
Medicare (1965)
VRA of 1965
Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965
Golf of Tonkin Resolution (1964)
Students for a Democratic Society / SDS / Port Huron
Statement (1962),
*Student Non-violent Coordinating Committee / SNCC/
Stokley Carmichael and H. Rap Brown, (p.
898)
Medgar Evers assassinated / Leader of NAACP (1963)
Malcolm X assassinated / Black Muslims- Organization for
Afro-American Unity (1925-65)
Watts Riot (1965)
M.L. King, Jr. assassinated (1968)
Cesar Chavez (1970’s)
Betty Friedan (1963) / Feminine Mystique / NOW (1966) /
ERA,
Phyllis Schlafly / Stop ERA (1960’S – 1980’S – present)
Election of 1968
CHAPTER 30 ID’S
1960
Kennedy-Nixon Debates
Pgs. 871-72
During the election of 1960, Republican Richard Nixon ran against Democrat John F. Kennedy. On September 26, the two
candidates held the first televised debate between two presidential candidates. The debate was televised by CBS. Kennedy took the
offensive on the issues and looked much better than Nixon. As a result of that debate and several others, Kennedy won the election.
1960-61
Massive Retaliation/Flexible Response
Pg. 873
During Kennedy’s administration, he focused on foreign affairs. His first goal was to build up the country’s armed forces.
His foreign policy was an alternative to massive retaliation. He called it flexible response. He built up American nuclear power,
started the Green Berets, and increased the size of the military. The idea behind flexible response was that the U.S. would have any
one of several weapons at its disposal if necessary to stop communist expansion.
1961
Berlin Wall Crisis
Pgs. 873-74
Since 1958, Khrushchev had been threatening to sign a peace treaty with East Germany that would put Berlin under German
control. He and Kennedy met in Vietnam in 1961 to discuss the treaty and Berlin’s future. The meeting didn’t solve anything.
Kennedy later increased military spending even more and called up thousands of reservists and National Guardsmen to active duty to
show Khrushchev that he was willing to use force to keep Berlin open. In response, the Russians settled for a stalemate but sealed off
East Germany with the Berlin Wall.
1961
Ngo Dinh Diem/ Ho Chi Minh
Pg. 875
1961
Cuba/ Fidel Castro/ Bay of Pigs Invasion
Pgs. 875-76
As the Cold War dragged on, Fidel Castro came to power in Cuba. He was a Communist and became a Russian ally. During
this campaign, Kennedy blamed the Republicans for letting Communism rise up right next to the U.S. He let the CIA organize a
group of Cuban exiles to invade Cuba and overthrow Castro. On April 17, the exiles invaded the Bay of Pigs. Kennedy refused a
U.S. air strike at the beachhead, and the exiles were defeated within 2 days.
October, 1962
Cuban Missile Crisis
Pgs. 876-77
Problems with Communist Cuba reached a peak during the Cuban Missile Crisis. Khrushchev had been
building up a pretty big arsenal in Cuba supposedly to defend against an American invasion. Kennedy said that was okay as long as
there was nothing installed that would threaten American security. Khrushchev went ahead and installed 42 missile sites in Cuba.
American spy planes found them, and Kennedy decided to have a showdown with Khrushchev. He decided to have a naval blockade
of Cuba, and threatened a nuclear strike if the missiles were not removed. Khrushchev said that the Soviet Union would retaliate if the
U.S did anything. For six days, the whole world was on the brink of war. Finally, Soviet ships, carrying more missiles, stopped so
there wouldn’t be a naval battle. Also, Khrushchev sent Kennedy two letters for peace. Eventually, Khrushchev agreed to remove the
missiles if the U.S. promised never to invade Cuba.
1962-1993
Arms Race
Pg. 878
As a result of the Cuban Missile Crisis, the Soviets realized that they had fallen behind the U.S. in military power. Also, the
crisis made Americans think that the only voice the Soviets would listen to was that of the military. Both sides started building more
weapons, ships, and increasing troop numbers. This military buildup was an arms race that would last until the end of the Cold War.
1963
Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee
Pgs. 880 & 98
Comment below about how the nature of this student led activist organization changed. Did it change for the better or for the
worst? Explain below.
1962
CORE/Freedom Riders
Pgs. 881
In dealing with civil rights, Kennedy didn’t want to alienate southern Democrats, so he let Attorney General Robert Kennedy
do most of the work. Nothing really got done. Finally, the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) took matters into its own hands. The
organization sponsored a freedom ride. A biracial group protested the segregation of interstate trains and buses. When they got to
Birmingham, they were attacked by an angry white mob. RFK got the Interstate Commerce Commission to ban segregation in
interstate terminals and buses and the freedom rides ended.
October, 1963
March on Washington
Pg. 881-83
After the police commissioner of Birmingham, Alabama broke up a group of children protesting with fire hoses, dogs and
clubs, JFK sponsored civil rights legislation providing equal access to all public accommodations and an extension of voting rights for
blacks. Even with this legislation, King organized a march on Washington. The marchers gathered at the Lincoln Memorial for a day
long rally.
1963
Malcolm X/Malcolm Little
1963
Gideon vs. Wainwright
Pgs. 883
1964
Escobedo vs. Illinois
Pg. 883
In these two cases and Miranda vs. Arizona in 1966, Kennedy’s liberal Supreme Court gave the traditional rights that
defendants had in federal court to defendants in state and local courts. The decision in these cases said that defendants had to be
provided lawyers, and to be given their constitutional rights, and could not be questioned or confess without their lawyers.
1966
Miranda vs. Arizona
Pg. 883
1962
Baker vs. Carr
Pg. 883
1964
Civil Rights Act of 1964
Pg. 885
President Johnson worked very hard behind the scenes to get the 1964 Civil Rights Act passed. The act made black
segregation illegal in public facilities, established a Fair Employment Practices Committee to lessen racial discrimination in
employment, and protected the voting rights of blacks. An amendment added sex to the prohibition of discrimination.
1962
The Other America
Pg. 885
The Other America was a book written by Michael Harrington about poverty in America. Harrington wrote that one fifth of
the country lived in poverty. He said that those in poverty were mainly composed of blacks, the elderly, and households headed by
women. The poor were invisible because they lived in out of the way areas and didn’t have access to education or health care. He
also said that poverty was a vicious cycle because the children of the poor didn’t have the means to better their situation.
1964
Election of 1964, Great Society
Pg. 886
In the election of 1964, Johnson ran against Republican Barry Goldwater. Goldwater was an outspoken Arizona senator. He
wanted nothing to do with welfare. Rather than going to the far left, Johnson stuck to the middle of the road. He supported the liberal
reform program that he called “Great Society”, but also balanced budgets and fiscal orthodoxy. Johnson wanted to win a landslide in
the polls and succeeded. The Democrats also won huge majorities in Congress.
1965
Medicare
Pgs. 887-88
In order to implement his Great Society, Johnson concentrated on health care and education. His idea on health care was for
Medicare. Medicare mandated health insurance under the Social Security program for Americans over 65 along with Medicaid for the
poor.
1965
Voting Rights Act of 1965
Pg. 887
During Johnson’s presidency, civil rights were still at the forefront of domestic politics. Millions of blacks were still denied
the right to vote in the South. After King led a protest in Selma, Alabama that was broken up violently, Johnson took action. He used
federal troops to protect demonstrators and had the Justice Department draw up a new voting rights act. The Voting Rights Act of
1965 outlawed literacy tests in states and counties in which less than half the population had voted in 1964. The act also provided
federal registrars to make sure the blacks were allowed to vote. The act passed.
1965
1964
Elementary and Secondary Education Act
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution
Pg. 891
After Johnson came to power, events in South Vietnam began to heat up. He followed Kennedy’s policy of sending
economic aid and military advisors. He also increased covert operations. Finally, on August 2, 1964, Vietnamese gunboats attacked
the Maddox, an American destroyer gathering information. They missed, but Johnson used the opportunity to order an airstrike
against North Vietnam. He later asked Congress for the power to use any measures he deemed necessary to repel any armed attack
against U.S. forces and prevent further aggression. Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution unanimously. Johnson hoped that
it would show North Vietnam that the U.S. would not back down.
1968
Tet Offensive
Pg. 900
The Vietnam War had been at a stalemate for a long time. The Viet Cong were using guerilla tactics and driving the
American military crazy. The Americans were destroying the countryside and driving the peasants to become VC. Finally, in late
January 1968, the VC launched the Tet offensive to mark the lunar new year. They wantonly attacked South Vietnamese cities and
provincial capitals. The Americans quickly beat the offensive, but television crews caught fighting inside the American compound in
Saigon and shocked the people back home.
1962
Students for a Democratic Society/SDS/
Port Huron Statement
1963
Medgar Evers Assassinated Leader of the NAACP
(National Association for the Advancement of
Colored People)
1963
Malcolm X Assassinated (1925-65)/Black Muslims/
Organization for Afro-American Unity
1965
Watts Riot
1968
Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr.
Pg. 895
1970
Cesar Chavez
Pg. 898
During the 1960’s, civil rights took large strides as blacks stood up and demanded equal rights with whites. Other groups
followed the black example, and many ethnic groups started to take pride in themselves and their works. Cesar Chavez helped lead
the way for Mexican-American pride. Chavez organized the grape pickers and lettuce workers of California into the National Farm
Workers Association. He led a strike against the grape growers in 1965, organized a boycott, and won a wage increase. He did the
same thing with the lettuce growers. Chavez’s actions led to increased price in the Mexican-American community.
1963-66
Betty Friedan/Feminine Mystique/
Pg. 899
National Organization for Women (NOW/
ERA (Equal Rights Amendment)
The woman’s situation had not improved since the 1920’s. There was still the double standard in sex. Women were still
expected to stay home and take care of the family. They were not given equal pay for equal work. In 1963, Betty Friedan wrote The
Feminine Mystique and listed the problems that women had in the 1960’s. She said that women lost their self-esteem and sense of
identity by staying home all day. Friedan organized the National Organization of Women in 1966 to help women achieve more
equality. NOW was opposed by more radical women’s groups that did not help the cause. In 1972, Congress approved the Equal
Rights Amendment introduced in 1923, so the states could vote on it. However, the amendment fell three states short of ratification
by 1982, and therefore never became part of the Constitution.
1960’s/1980’s/present
Phyllis Schlafly/STOP ERA
Vietnam: A Nation Divided
As the war in Vietnam continued, many American citizens
became critical of U.S. involvement. Peace organizations were
founded to protest the war. Thousands marched on Washington
in October 1967. President Johnson’s standing in popularity
polls rose when he slackened the war effort and fell when he
increased it. American opinion was sharply divided between the
“hawks” who favored winning the war at any cost, and “doves”
who favored immediate withdrawal from the conflict. Television
brought both the horrors of war and the drama of peace protests
into the American living room. Among the disastrous incidents
related to the anti-war demonstrations was the action of the
National Guard at Kent State College in Ohio in May 1970. The
Guard fired on a group of demonstrators, and four students were
killed. Pressure on Congress to pull out of Vietnam became
stronger.
The expressed U.S. goal was not to conquer North Vietnam,
but rather to force it to stop the fighting. Bombing strikes and
search and destroy missions were key strategies. American
soldiers were particularly handicapped in not knowing the
language of the country and in having no sure way to tell
Vietnamese friend from Vietnamese enemy. The Communist
forces relied on guerilla tactics in the jungle terrain, thus
avoiding open battles wherever possible. While American forces
had the edge in training, leadership, and equipment, the
Communists appeared to have endless supplies of manpower as
well as the advantage of fighting on home territory.
The election of 1968 turned the presidency over to Richard
Nixon. Air strikes against North Vietnam continued and were
extended into neighboring Cambodia to attack a source of enemy
supplies. On the other hand, 25,000 troops were brought home in
1969 and another 150,000 returned in 1970. Nixon employed
Henry Kissinger as an advisor for national security. Kissinger
began secret negotiations with Le Duc Tho of
North Vietnam, and a cease-fire was announced in January 1973.
For this cease-fire, both men were awarded the 1973 Nobel Prize.
Still, the fighting continued.
On March 29, 1973, the final American ground forces were
withdrawn from Vietnam. Congress was reluctant to continue
military aid, and no further troops were supplied. With the
diminished U.S. support, South Vietnam was forced to surrender
to North Vietnam on April 30, 1975.
Use the Map
Vietnam: Background
Before World War II, France controlled much of
Southeast Asia, then called Indochina. Although many
people in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia desired
independence, French rule was too powerful to
overthrow. After France fell to Germany in 1940,
however, the Japanese were able to take over French
possessions in Asia. Often, the Japanese were welcomed
by leaders of Asian independence movements.
However, many leaders of the independence
movement in Vietnam resisted Japanese control. Led by
Ho Chi Minh, a Communist, these resistance leaders
accepted American aid in their fight against Japanese rule.
Their goal was to establish an independent Vietnam.
When the Japanese were defeated in 1945, the
Vietnamese declared their country to be an independent
nation. However, France now wanted to reestablish its
empire. A bloody war for independence followed.
Vietnamese leaders had received advice and
encouragement from the Soviet Union as well as from the
United States. In the beginning, it was not clear which
direction they leaned. Then, Soviet expansion in Europe,
the 1949 success of the Chinese Communists, and the
obvious increase of Communist power in Korea started to
tilt the scale.
America began to assume that Vietnam was going
Communist.
The Truman Doctrine, calling for
“containment” of Communism in Europe, was extended
to Asia. The United States gave large amounts of arms
and military supplies to the French fighting in Vietnam.
Despite massive amounts of American aid, the French were
defeated; they left Vietnam in 1954. According to final
agreements signed between French and Vietnamese, French
forces were to withdraw from northern Vietnam, and the
independence forces were to withdraw from southern
Vietnam. An election was to be held in 1956. The winners
would rule all of Vietnam.
Despite the agreement, elections were not held. A prowestern government took control in the south and requested
United States aid.
The non-Communist government
established in Saigon began to imprison and execute members
of the opposition. The opposition came from both the north
and the south, but when they established a fighting force
called the Viet Cong, they received their support from North
Vietnam. Now they began a new war against the Saigon
government. This war was underway as Kennedy entered
office.
Kennedy increased the American aid to the southern
government and sent American soldiers to aid and advise
those fighting the Viet Cong. Johnson, after succeeding
Kennedy, ordered even more aid to the scene. In August
1964, two American destroyers reported attacks in the Gulf of
Tonkin. Johnson requested and was given special emergency
powers, and Congress agreed to place the Vietnamese
situation almost totally in his hands. By the end of the year,
large numbers of American soldiers were fighting the Viet
Cong.
TIME LINE FOR VIETNAM
1945
1946
1954
1955
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
Japan is defeated in WWII, Ho Chi Minh establishes Democratic Republic of Vietnam.
French forces return to Vietnam and negotiations between French and Viet Minh break down.
French fortress of Dien Bien Phu falls to General Giap.
Conference held in Geneva, Switzerland to settle problems agrees to:
1. Vietnam will be temporarily partitioned along the 17th parallel.
2. Elections will be held in 1956 to re-unite Vietnam.
3. Military forces of all parties concerned are to be limited from future growth.
4. No military bases are to be granted to any foreign power.
Vietnam and the United States do not sign the agreement and Ho Chi Minh opposes them.
Ngo Dinh Diem appointed Prime Minister of S. Vietnam, U.S. pledges 100 million dollars to his support.
Refugees flee from North to South Vietnam aided by the U.S. Navy.
Ngo Dinh Diem elected President of South Vietnam and refuses to hold promised elections in 1956.
U.S. agrees to train South Vietnamese army and guerilla warfare by Viet Cong begins.
Two U.S. military advisors killed in South Vietnam by guerillas.
U.S. military personnel increases to 685 men. Military coup against Diem fails; National Liberation Front (NLF) established
in South Vietnam.
Vice-President Johnson visits Vietnam and recommends to President Kennedy to increase aid to Diem. President Kennedy
sends the first Green Berets to Vietnam.
U.S. military increased to 4,000 (12,000) and strategic hamlets begun.
Buddhists demonstrate against Diem, his troops crush Buddhist protestors. Diem killed by his own army in a military coup,
1964
1965
1966
1967
President Kennedy killed in Dallas.
Incidents involving the USS Maddox prompts the Gulf of Tonkin Resolutions. Congress allows the President to “promote
the maintenance of international peace and security in Southeast Asia” by whatever steps are necessary.
By December 31, 1964—US Troops in Vietnam
23,300
First bombing of North Vietnam by U.S.
killed in action (to date)
267
wounded (to date)
1,534
First American combat troops arrive. Sustained bombing of North Vietnam begins.
By December 31, 1965 - U.S. Troops in Vietnam
killed
wounded
184,300
1,636
7,645
China and the Soviet Union increase aid to North Vietnam
By December 31, 1966 – U.S. Troops in Vietnam
killed
wounded
385,380
6,644
37,738
General Nguyen Van Thieu elected President of South Vietnam. War costing the U.S. million dollars per day.
By December 31, 1967 – U.S. Troops in Vietnam
killed
(Tet Offensive)
wounded
485,600
16,021
99,762
1968
In the United States, criticism of the war increases; North Vietnamese and Vietcong launch Tet Offensive. President Johnson
says he will limit bombing of the North, and Hanoi sends peace delegation to Paris; Martin Luther King Jr. assassinated;
Robert Kennedy assassinated; President Johnson announces he will not run for re-election; riots at the Democratic convention
in Chicago.
By December 31, 1968 – U.S. Troops in Vietnam
536,100
killed
30,610
wounded
197,860
1969
President Nixon begins secret bombing of Cambodia; My Lai massacre, which took place the previous year, is revealed;
500,000 peace protestors march in Washington D.C.; President Nixon begins “phased withdrawal of U.S. troops from
Vietnam.
By December 31, 1969 – U.S. Troops in Vietnam
475,200
killed
40,024
wounded
262,736
1970
U.S. and Vietnamese troops invade Cambodia, Kent State deaths.
By December 31, 1970 – U.S. Troops in Vietnam
killed
wounded
334,600
44,246
293, 489
Lt. Calley convicted of premeditated murder at My Lai; “Pentagon Papers” published
By December 31, 1971 – U.S. Troops in Vietnam
killed
wounded
156,800
45,626
302,375
1971
1972
Intense bombing of North Vietnam
Agreement of a cease fire made between U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger and North Vietnamese representative Le
Duc Tho. Provisions are:
1. A general cease-fire in place for all military personnel.
2. A total withdrawal of all North Vietnamese regular units from the South is 60 days.
3. The return of all captured military personnel.
4. The people of South Vietnam will decide the political future of that country in free elections under
international supervision.
Cease-fire goes into effect; draft in the U.S. ended; last American troops leave Vietnam; American P.O.W’s released; War
Powers Act passes Congress over President Nixon’s veto.
1974
Fighting resumes in South Vietnam.
1975
Last American personnel (press corps and diplomats) are evacuated from South Vietnam; communist forces capture Saigon
and rename it Ho Chi Minh City.
1976
North and South Vietnam become the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.
1977
President Carter grants amnesty to most of 10,000 Vietnam war resisters one day after his inauguration.
1994 (April)
The U.S. opens up diplomatic relations with Vietnam.
1973
The Price of Peace in Vietnam
The dead
Civilians
North Vietnam and Vietcong
South Vietnam
United States
U.S. Dollars
military aid
economic aid
approximately 1,000,000
926,541
183,719
56,132 (wounded 303,704)
$136 billon
$ 8.5 billion
Interesting Related Facts
The average age of a U.S. soldier who served in
Vietnam was 23 and 79% were high school graduates.
While 30% of the 56,132 killed came from the lowest third
in income, 26% came from the highest third; 12.5% were
black. Though 500,000 men did dodge the draft, only 9,000
were convicted. (see attached related story.
FORD OFFERS AMNESTY PROGRAM
New York Times
September 16, 1974
President Ford offered conditional amnesty to thousands of Vietnam era draft evaders who agree to work for up to two years in public
service jobs. In announcing his “earned re-entry” program, the President established a nine-member Presidential clemency board to
review the cases of those already convicted or punished for desertion or draft evasion. The Amnesty program became effective
immediately when the president signed a Presidential proclamation and two Executive Orders. (Executive Orders require no
Congressional action).
Under the program, draft evaders or deserters who have not been convicted or punished have until next Jan 31 st to turn themselves into
the authorities, reaffirm their allegiance to the United States and agree to spend up to two years in public service jobs, such as
hospitals attendants or conservation.
The United States Attorney or military service head would decide the length of alternative service to be performed by each individual.
The President set no minimum period of service, but he said that the maximum two-year requirement could be “reduced” for
“mitigating circumstances,” such as family hardships.
Placement of persons in public service jobs would be administered by the director of the Selective Service System, Byron V. Pepitone.
He said today that applicants would be encouraged to find their own jobs, subject to approval by his agency.
For those already convicted or punished for desertion or draft evasion, the new Presidential clemency board will review cases on an
individual basis. Priority will be given to those now in prison, and officials said that their confinement would be suspended as soon as
possible.
Federal officials gave varying estimates of the number of deserters and evaders potentially eligible under the program. The estimates
ranged from 28,000 to 50,000 or more.
Some officials said that 15,500 draft evaders would be eligible for clemency. Of these, 8,700 have already been convicted and 4,350
are under indictment, 4,060 are listed as fugitives, 3,000 of them in Canada. There are 130 persons now serving prison sentences for
draft evasion.
Officials also said that 660 deserters were serving prison sentences or awaiting trial, and about 12,500 others were still at large, with
about 1,500 of these now living in Canada.
Deputy Attorney General Laurence Silberman said today that those agreeing to participate in the plan should be prepared to serve the
full 24 months of public service employment, although “mitigating circumstances” might lessen the term of service.
He said that those who failed to live up to the agreement would be subject to prosecution for the original charge of draft evasion or
desertion.
The clemency program would cover offenses that took place between the Senate ratification of the Gulf of Tonkin resolution on
August 4, 1964, and the day the last United States combat soldier left Vietnam, March 28, 1973.
Officials said that clemency would not be considered for deserters or evaders who faced other, unrelated charges
Draft evaders would be required to “execute an agreement” acknowledging allegiance to the United States and pledging to fulfill the
period of alternative service. Deserters would be required to take an oath of allegiance to the United States, as well as agreeing to
fulfill the term of alternative service.