CHAPTER 2
The Tools of Sociology
Chapter Outline
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Applying the Sociological Imagination
The Basic Methods
Analyzing the Data
Theories and Perspectives
Steps in the Research Process
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In all research projects, certain basic steps
must be completed, though not always in
the order listed here:
1. Deciding on the problem.
 2. Reviewing the literature.
 3. Formulating research questions.
 4. Selecting a method.
 5. Analyzing the data.
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Durheim’s Hypotheses of Suicide
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Émile Durkheim’s study of suicide provides a good
example of the process by which a sociologist
converts a broad question into empirical study.
Durkheim’s Hypotheses of Suicide
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These explanations are often stated in the form of a
hypothesis - a statement that expresses an informed
guess regarding the possible relationship between two
or more phenomena.
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In his study of suicide, Durkheim demonstrated that he
could predict where and when suicides would be more
numerous.
Variables
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In sociology, a variable is a characteristic of individuals,
groups, or entire societies that can vary from one case
to another.
Religion, education, marital status, and number of
children are other variable examples.
Qualitative & Quantitative Methods
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Social researchers often distinguish between
qualitative and quantitative fact-finding methods.
Qualitative methods - generate many facts about a
relatively small number of cases.
Quantitative methods - are based on systematic
counting and statistical analysis of as many cases as
possible.
 Quantitative researchers often rely on the
categories or ideas developed through qualitative
research and attempt to count the frequency of
observations in different categories.
Basic Research Methods
Method
Description
Field observation in which the
Participant
observer participates in the lives of
Observation
the people being observed.
Observational techniques that
Unobtrusive measure behavior but intrude as little
Measures as possible into actual social
settings.
Basic Research Methods
Method
Description
Controlled
Experiment
An experiment in which the
researcher manipulates an
independent variable to measure
changes in a dependent variable.
Field
Experiment
An experiment in which the
researcher observes subjects in their
natural setting.
OBSERVATION
Qualitative sociological
research requires direct
observation of people
being studied. The
sociologists attempt to be
both objective observers
of events and actual
participants in the social
milieu under study—not an
easy task for even the most
experienced researchers.
OBSERVATION
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In such situations, the
observers faithfully
record their
observations and
interactions in field
notes, which supply
the descriptive data
that will be used in the
analysis and writing
phases of the study.
Experiments

Controlled experiments
allow the researcher to
manipulate an independent
variable to measure
changes in a dependent
variable.
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Field experiments involve a
“treatment group” of people
who participate in the
program and a control group
of people who do not.
Survey Research
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Surveys ask people to give precise information
about their behavior and attitudes.
Survey techniques make it possible to
generalize from a small sample of respondents
to an entire population.
Basic Research Methods
Method
Description
Survey
Research in which a sample of
respondents drawn from a specific
population respond to questions in
an interview or questionnaire.
Basic Research Methods
Method
Example
Participant
Observation
Sanchez-Jankowski spends many
months with youth gangs, gaining their
trust and learning gang norms.
Unobtrusive
Measures
Media researchers learn about the
listening tastes of different segments of
the public.
Basic Research Methods
Method
Example
Field
Rokeach meets three mental
Experiment patients, each of whom believes he
is Jesus Christ. He introduces them
to each other to learn how they
incorporate conflicting information
into their self-presentations.
Basic Research Methods
Method
Example
Controlled
Experiment
The Manpower Research and
Development Corporation
conducts experiments to learn the
types of training and job programs
that reduce state welfare rolls.
Basic Research Methods
Method
Example
Survey
A team of National Opinion
Research Center sociologists
survey the public about their sexual
behavior and attitudes.
Research Ethics and the Rights of
Respondents
1.
2.
3.
Right of privacy - the right to define when and on what
terms one’s activities should be revealed to the
general public.
Confidentiality - the assurance that no information can
be traced to a respondent.
Informed consent - statements about what
respondents are being asked and how their responses
will be used.
Analyzing the Data
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Survey research generates numerical data, which are
displayed in tables.
Frequency distributions indicate how many observations
fall within each category of a variable.
Percent analysis permits comparisons between
categories by transforming absolute numbers into a
proportion as a part of 100.
Theories and Perspectives
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A theory is a set of interrelated concepts that seeks to
explain the causes of a phenomenon.
Theoretical perspectives offer explanations for aspects
of social behavior.
Theoretical perspectives provide a framework of ideas
and explanations.
QUICK QUIZ
1. The research process for sociologists
a.
always begins with the development of a theory.
b.
should be modeled on the classical experimental
method.
c.
has few, if any, tangible benefits, while often
exacting great personal costs.
d.
does not always proceed in the order of the
exact steps specified in the text.
Answer: d

The research process for sociologists does not always
proceed in the order of the exact steps specified in
the text.
2. Marital status, age, race, and income are important
________ within sociology.
a. theories
b. variables
c. attributes
d. hypotheses
Answer: b
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Marital status, age, race, and income are important
variables within sociology.
3. Involvement in the day-to-day lives and activities of
those you wish to study form the basis of which
technique?
a. survey research
b. content analysis
c. participant observation
d. unobtrusive measurement
Answer: c
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Involvement in the day-to-day lives and activities of
those you wish to study form the basis of participant
observation.
4. Research typically used to estimate the demographic
characteristics and social attitudes of a population
employs
a. a survey.
b. unobtrusive measures.
c. participant observation.
d. the experimental method.
Answer: a
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Research typically used to estimate the demographic
characteristics and social attitudes of a population
employs a survey.