Major Research Designs
How Sociologists Gather their Data
Doing Research in the Social
Sciences
Like all scientists, sociologists gain their
knowledge by doing research.
 The goal of sociological research is to test
common sense assumptions and replace
false ideas with facts and evidence.
 Part of the sociological perspective is to
ask “why” and “how” questions and then
to form hypotheses to arrive at accurate
understandings.

Doing Research Continued…
Social scientists differ from other
scientists in how they do their research.
 Unlike chemists, biologists, etc…, ethical
and logistical issues make it difficult for
sociologists to set up experiments in a
laboratory.
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Quantitative vs. Qualitative

Research methods can be divided into
two categories:
◦ Quantitative: uses numerical data
 Examples - survey, pre-collected data, experiment
◦ Qualitative: relies on narrative, descriptive
data
 Examples – field research, case studies
Research Designs
How to collect data
 Research Design = detailed plan or
method for obtaining data scientifically
 Choice of research design will directly
influence:

◦ the cost of the project
◦ the amount of time needed to collect the
results of the research
Research Designs
Research designs regularly used by
sociologists:
1. Surveys
2. Secondary analysis
3. Experiments
4. Field research
1. Surveys

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Survey = a study (interview or
questionnaire) that provides researchers
with information about how people think
and act
Sociologists must care when preparing to
conduct a survey
◦ Develop representative sample
◦ Carefully word the questions

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Most widely used research method among
sociologists
Ideal for large groups
The Interview
Interview = Researcher obtains information
through face-to-face or telephone
questioning
 Can obtain a high response rate because
people find it more difficult to turn down a
personal request.
 A skilful interviewer can go beyond written
questions and “probe” for a subject’s
underlying feelings and reasons.
 The characteristics of the interviewer have
an impact on the survey data (ie. Female
interviewers get more feminist responses)

The questionnaire
Questionnaire = Researchers uses a
printed or written form to obtain
information from a respondent.
 Advantage of being cheaper, especially in
large samples

Effective Survey Questions
Simple and clear enough for people to
understand it
 Specific enough so that there are no
problems in the interpretation of results
 Open-ended questions must be carefully
phrased to solicit the type of information
desired
 Questions are worded accurately and
without bias

Examples of Questions
Sample Size
Ideally a researcher who survey all those
within a given population (group of people
with certain specified characteristics)
 Sociologists, therefore, survey a sample of
the population.
 Sociologists must take great care to choose
a representative sample, one that accurately
reflects the characteristics of the population
as a whole.
 Random selection usually ensures a more
representative sample.

2. Secondary Analysis
Secondary Analysis = Pre-collected data
or info someone else has gathered
 Examples:
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Government reports
Company records
Voting lists
Prison records
Reports of other sociologists
Census data
3. Experiments
Used when sociologists want to study a causeand-effect relationship
 Experiment = an artificially created situation that
allows the researcher to manipulate the variables
 In the classical method of conducting an
experiment, two groups of people are selected
and matched for similar characteristics, such as
age or education.
 Sociologists don’t often rely on this classic form
of experiment because it generally involves
manipulating human behaviour in an inappropriate
manner.

Hawthorne Effect
In some experiments the presence of a
social scientist or other observer may affect
the behaviour of people being studied.
 Experiment in 1920’s and 1930’s at
Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric
Company
 Researchers trying to determine how to
improve the productivity of workers at the
plant.
 Investigators manipulated such variables as
lighting and working hours to see what
impact changes in them had on productivity.

Hawthorne Effect continued…
Found every step they took seemed to
increase productivity.
 Even measures that seemed likely to have
the opposite effect led to higher
productivity.
 Workers’ behaviour was influenced by the
greater attention being paid to them in the
course of the research and by the novelty of
being subjects of an experiment.
 Hawthorne effect = subjects who deviate
from their typical behaviour because they
realize that they are under observation

4. Field Research
Field Research = research that takes place
in a natural (non-laboratory) setting.
 Most popular approach to field research
is the case study (intensive study of a
single group, incident, or community).
 Assumes findings can be generalized from
one group to another.

Participant Observation

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Participant observation = sociologist may
actually join a group for a time to get an
accurate sense of how it operates.
Challenges:
◦ Sociologists must be able to fully understand
what they are observing
◦ Must learn to see the world as the group sees it
in order to fully comprehend the events taking
place around them.
◦ Can’t allow the close associations or even
friendships that inevitably develop to influence
the subjects’ behaviour or the conclusions of the
study
Theoretical Perspectives and
Research Methods
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The research methods that researchers choose to employ in their
study of social phenomena are informed and guided by the
theoretical perspectives they hold.
Functionalist – value neutrality and objectivity – prefer quantitative
methods (surveys, experiments, and secondary data analysis).
Conflict – might employ historical analysis or engage in field
research to uncover the hidden economic and political interests of
a society; view their research as a basis for action and change
Interactionist – field research/case studies/participant observation;
goal of the researcher is to describe the meanings and to
understand the definitions that people give to their own
institutions
Feminists – no single research method employed; guided by the
common desire to bring about action and change through their
research.