Ground Cover
 References
 IFSTA Essentials of Fire Fighting Fifth Edition
 IFSTA Essentials of Fire Fighting Fifth Edition Fire
Fighter I & II Presentations
 Delmar Firefighters Handbook Essentials of
Firefighting and Emergency Response
 National Wildfire Coordinating Group
 National Wildfire Coordination Group, Nation
Interagency Fire Center
1
Wildland Fires
Require Full
PPE !!!
2
Standard
Firefighting
Orders
 1. Keep informed on fire weather conditions and
forecast.
 2. Know what your fire is doing at all times.
 3. Base all actions on current and expected
behavior of the fire.
 4. Identify escape routes and safety zones, and
make them known.
3
Standard
Firefighting
Orders
 5. Post lookouts when there is possible danger.
 6. Be alert. Keep calm. Think clearly. Act decisively.
 7. Maintain proper communications with your
forces, your supervisor and adjoining forces.
4
Standard
Firefighting
Orders
 8. Give clear instructions and insure they are
understood.
 9. Maintain control of your forces at all times.
 10. Fight fire aggressively, having provided for all
safety first.
5
The firefighter shall correctly define wildfire terms as
used as in the fire service:
 (a.) Mop – up
 (i.) Fire behavior
 (b.) Direct attack
 (j.) Incident commander
 (c.) Indirect attack
 (k.) Incendiary fire
 (d.) Fuel
 (l.) Mutual aid
 (e.) Backfire/Burnout
 (m.) Fire season
 (f.) Barrier
 (n.) Convection column
 (g.) Topography
 (o.) Tools used in ground
 (h.) Suppression
6
cover fires
Defined Wildfire
Terms
 MOP – UP: All measures taken to make a
fire “safe” after it has been controlled;
includes trenching, felling snags, and
patrolling control line.
7
Defined Wildfire
Terms
 DIRECT ATTACK:To attack the fire directly at
or close to the burning edge.
 INDIRECT ATTACK: Controlling the fire by
having the control line some distance from the
approaching fire.
8
Defined Wildfire
Terms
 WILDLAND FIRES: include fires in weeds, grass,
field crops, brush, forest, and similar vegetation.
 FUELS: are generally classified by grouping
together fuels with similar burning characteristics.
This method classifies ground cover fuels as
ground, surface, and crown fuels.
9
Defined Wildfire
Terms
 GROUND FUELS: (Duff) Small twigs, leaves, and
needles that are decomposing on the ground.
 SURFACE FUELS: Living surface vegetation
includes grass, brush, and other low vegetation.
Nonliving surface vegetation includes downed
logs, heavy limbs, etc.
10
Defined Wildfire
Terms
 CROWN FUELS: Suspended and upright fuels
physically separated from the ground fuels to
the extent that air can circulate freely around
the fuels causing them to burn more rapidly.
11
Defined Wildfire
Terms
 BACKFIRING: A technique used in the indirect
attack method. Intentionally setting a fire between
the control line and the advancing fire.The intent is
for the backfire to meet the advancing fire some
distance from the control line.
 BURNING OUT: Intentionally setting fire to fuels
inside the control line to widen the line. Used as a
direct attack technique.
12
Defined Wildfire
Terms
 BARRIER: Natural terrain as in; streams, cleared
fields, swamps, burned areas, and roads typically
an area or strip devoid of combustible fuel.
 TOPOGRAPHY: Refers to the slope of the land
and has a decided effect upon fire behavior, and
influence on air movements.
13
Defined Wildfire
Terms
 SLOPE ASPECTS:The direction the slopes
faces. Full southern exposure (north of the
equator) receive more of the sun’s direct rays
and therefore receive more heat. Wildland fires
typically burn faster on the southern exposures.
14
Defined Wildfire
Terms
 LOCAL TERRIAN FEATURES: Directly affect
air movements. Obstructions, such as ridges,
trees, and even large rock outcroppings, may
alter air flow and cause turbulence or eddies
resulting in erratic fire behavior.
15
Defined Wildfire
Terms
 CANYONS: Results in increased wind velocity.
Wind movement can be critical in chutes of
steep “V” drainages. These terrain features
create turbulent updrafts causing a chimney
effect. Fires in these chutes or drainages can
spread at an extremely fast rate and are very
dangerous.
16
Defined Wildfire
Terms
 SUPPRESSION: Is attacking and extinguishing the
fire. All personal and equipment and their activities
in the field on the fire line are part of this activity.
 FIRE BEHAVIOR: All fires are the result of a
chemical process that occurs when a fuel becomes
surrounded with adequate heat & air and manner in
which a fire reacts to the variables of fuel, weather,
and topography.
17
Defined Wildfire
Terms
 INCIDENT COMMANDER: A person that
encompasses the operation level, and overall charge
of suppressing a ground fire.
 INCENDIARY FIRE: Chemical agents that are used
to start fires. Flammable and combustible liquids;
Drip torch. Also flares, chemical oxidizers may be
used.
18
Defined Wildfire
Terms
 MUTUAL AID: A operation when two or more fire
departments operate together, moving apparatus and
firefighters in one community to another for the
purpose of fire suppression under incident command.
 Direct assistance from one fire agency to another during
an emergency based upon a prearranged between
agencies involved and generally made upon the request
of the receiving agency.
19
Defined Wildfire
Terms
 FIRE SEASON:Time of year when ground
cover fires are most likely to happen and occur
with spread, and the damage wildland values are
sufficient to warrant organized fire suppression.
20
Defined Wildfire
Terms
 CONVECTION COLUMN: Rising column of
heated air or gases above a continuing heat or
fire source. These violent convection columns
fire storms, often with tornado like whirls,
caused by large, continuous fires. Also caused
by uneven terrain.
21
Defined Wildfire
Terms
 TOOLS USED IN GROUND COVER FIRES:
Shovels, Pulaski, fire rakes, hoes, saws, water
pump cans, brush hooks, torches, McLeods,
swatters, brooms, axes, combination tools, and
support equipment.
22
Fire Suppression
 The successful attack and control of ground
cover fire can best be achieved if the fire
problem is fully evaluated by by pre-fire
planning and size up.
 Size up begins with the first report of the
fire.
23
Fire Suppression
 The firefighter should begin to evaluate the
problem with the facts at hand: The areas
reference points and landmarks, the time of
year, and the time of day.
24
Fire Suppression
 The smoke can usually be seen from a
distance. This can tell you what type fuel load
may be burning. What the wind direction is,
and what road or route to take to head off the
fire.
25
Fire Suppression
 The first several minutes are the most
important for the success of initial attack
because the firefighter must decide at that
point whether additional forces are needed.
26
Size Up
 It may be obvious that the initial attack force
will be able to suppress the fire in a reasonable
length of time.
 There may be some question of weather the
initial attack force will be able to suppress the
fire without reinforcement.
27
Size Up
 The fire may be a burning building that is totally
involved, the fire threatening heavy grass and
brush land.
 The initial attack force should ignore the
building and attempt to prevent or suppress
ground cover fire.
28
Size Up
 It may be obvious that the initial attack forces
can’t stop the fire. Call for reinforcements on all
sides.
 Establish a strategic point such as a road or
cleared field where the line may be anchored so
the efforts of the crew will not be lost or
outflanked.
29
Size Up
 It may be observed that valuable
improvements in the path of the flames are
threatened. Take measures to protect them
and begin to suppress the spreading fire.
30
Size Up is a
continuous process
 A ground cover fire is ever changing and
size up should be continuous even after
initial attack is made. Factors that
become involved during a fire:
31
Size Up is a
continuous process
 The location of the head or heads
 Type of fuel
 Size of fire
 Special hazards
 Exposures
 Natural barriers
 Access roads
 Water source
 Line of retreat
32
Planning the Attack
 After size up, an overall attack method must
be decided upon and put into operation.
 Determining the attack method should be
based knowledge of fire behavior, the
personal and equipment available, and
potential economic effect of the fire. Other
factors to consider are:
33
Planning the Attack
 Where to attack
 Location of control lines
 Estimated completion time of line
construction
 Estimated spread and behavior of the fire
 Determine possible danger spots
34
Direct Attack
 Direct attack techniques cool, drown, smother,
beat out, starve, or otherwise suppress the
flame.
 The control line is established along or directly
on the edge of the fire.
35
Direct Attack
 The direct attack is most often used on light
running fires in grass, leaves, small brush, field
crops, and on the flanks and rear of large,
intense fires.
 Some of the more pertinent questions that
deserve answers when considering the use of
direct attack are:
36
Direct Attack
 Will there be to much heat and smoke for the
firefighters to work at the edge of the fire?
 Is there adequate protective breathing
equipment available for fire fighters?
 Will firefighters be relatively safe at the fire’s
edge so they can escape?
 Will trucks, hose lines, and equipment be
exposed excessive risk of burning?
37
Direct Attack
 Will it be worth the effort to construct a
fire line close to a natural barrier in a
unburned area?
 Will direct attack at a specific point avoid a
probable in an area that might threaten
exposures of economic value?
 Are firefighters in physical shape to work
effectively in a direct attack?
38
39
Direct Attack
 Advantages
 The fire is stopped with little further spread
 No costly or dangerous backfiring is used
 Full advantage is taken of burned-out areas
along control line
 No need for standby personal to watch
unburned areas
40
Direct Attack
 Disadvantages
 Attack is hampered by heat, smoke, and flames
 Control line is long, irregular, and must follow the
fire edge
 Does not always take advantage of natural fire
barriers
 Greater danger from breakovers, hot spots, and
wind changes
 More mop-up and closer patrol required
41
Indirect Attack
 The indirect attack consists of controlling a
ground cover fire by constructing a
continuous line to bare soil, in unburned fuels
at a considerable distance in front of the fire,
and then backfiring.
42
Indirect Attack
 It is most effective against large fires during
periods of high fire danger where there is
intense burning, a high rate of spread, and
when working conditions are extremely
hazardous to firefighters.
43
44
Drip Torch
Fuses
Back Burning
Pulaski
45
Indirect Attack
 Advantages
 Permits easier work for crew because less
smoke, heat, and flame contact
 Reduces length of fire edge and shortens control
time
 Permits crews to take advantage of natural
barriers
 Less danger of breakover from sparks
46
Indirect Attack
 Disadvantages
 Sacrifice in acreage burned
 Backfiring can get out of control
 Requires a close watch along fire line to prevent
flare up behind it
 Fire can suddenly change direction because of
wind conditions
 Fire can outflank and put crew in jeopardy
47
Fire Line
Location &
Construction
 A fire line established for an indirect attack serves
as a safety strip to prevent further spread of the
fire once it has been brought under control.
 The success of depends upon how skillfully the
fire line is located and constructed, and how the
backfire is used to contain the head of the fire.
48
Fire Line
Location &
Construction
 A fire line must be wide enough to prevent
oncoming flame from jumping over to the fuel
on the other side.
 A fire line must be built far enough ahead of the
fire before it can reach it.
49
Fire Line
Location &
Construction
 Take advantage of natural barriers
 Avoid thick dense fuel
 Do not construct more line than crews can
supervise
 Anchor the line to safe fire barrier
50
Fire Line
Location &
Construction
 Fire line construction begins with determining
the location of the line.
 This is usually done by a officer, who must
continually size-up the situation, take advantage
of favorable breaks, and watch for conditions
that might cause loss of control or danger to
crew.
51
Fire Line
Location &
Construction
 Remove all ground cover and debris along the
fire line
 Clean fire line down to bare soil
 The line should not be less than 18 inches wide
52
Fire Line
Location &
Construction
 All burned and charred material should be
thrown back into the burn
 Scatter all cut and unburned fuels
 Remove all overhanging branches
53
Ground Cover
54
Classifying fuels is creating a reference term
for grouping together fuels with similar
burning characteristics.
55
Small fuel particles, known as light or flash
fuels, ignite easily and are fast burning.
56
These fuels are slow burning and seldom
ignite without the aid of a fire involving light
fuels.
57
Successful fire attack and control is based on
an adequate size-up of the fire.
58
Knowledge of weather information is
important for the control of ground cover
fires.
59
Wind has a profound effect on fire
behavior, it fans the flames into greater
intensity and speeds combustion.
60
Relative humidity affects the amount of
moisture in fuel. When humidity drops to
30%, conditions are favorable for fire.
61
The slope of the land will affect both
the rate and direction of fire spread.
62
During every 24-hour daily cycle there are
periods when the burning characteristics
are fairly predictable.
63
Typical terms for parts of a ground cover
fire to aid in size-up, and pre-fire planning.
64
Ground Cover
 As you can see the wind pushes the fire and the
fuel that is consumed is thicker at the head of
the fire.
 Spot fires can occur with any wildland fire.
 In the black, you can also see the skags that are
left behind from the fire.
65
Indirect attack consist of controlling the fire
by constructing a continuous line to bare soil
in unburned fuels, and then backfiring
66
If a fire is burning up a slope toward the crest of
a hill, locate fire line just over the ridge to
provide more time for construction of a fire line.
67
Anchor fire lines from natural barriers, and
away from snags to improve line location.
68
After a control line has been established,
start the Backfire simultaneously across the
front of the main fire.
69
Mobile Attack
 Mobile attack is a fast and effective method of extinguishing ground
cover fires.
 It involves the moving of one or more pieces of fire apparatus and
employing 3 basic types of the direct attack method.
70
Pincer – direct attack around the fire
perimeter in opposite directions by two or
more pumpers from the heel or head.
71
Tandem – attack along a part of the fire
perimeter by pumpers following each other.
Envelopment – attacking key or critical
segments around the entire fire perimeter.
72
Progressive hose
lay requires
coordination and
teamwork to be
effective. Start
hose lay at
anchor point, and
flank to work
perimeter.
73
Mop-up is
making a
ground cover
fire after it has
been
controlled.
74
Examples of
ground cover
fire fighting
tools.
75
Under some conditions, it may not be possible
to provide stored water in constructed tanks.
Streams, ponds, lakes, rivers, and pools are
also another source of water supply.
76
 The firefighter shall, given a specific
wildland fire situation, describe the effect of
fuel, weather and topography on wildland
fire, and predict the direction and speed of
the fire spread.
 Video 1 Understanding fire behavior
77
Common
Denomination of
Fire Behavior on
Tragedy Fires
 There are four major common denominators of
fire behavior on fatal and near-fatal fires, and all
to often these type of events occurs:
 1. On relatively small fires or deceptively quiet
areas of large fires.
78
Common
Denomination of
Fire Behavior on
Tragedy Fires
 2. In relatively light fuels, such as grass, herbs,
and light brush.
 3. When there is an unexpected shift in wind
direction or wind speed.
 4. When fire responds to topographic conditions
and runs uphill.
79
Common
Denomination of
Fire Behavior on
Tragedy Fires
 Alignment of topography and wind during the
burning period should always be considered a
trigger point to re-evaluate strategy and tactics.
80
81
Ground Cover
 That concludes the self study part of the class.
 Now the student, that’s you, will watch the
National Wildland/Urban Interface Fire
Program video 1 located Dayroom.
 After the completion of the video, return to
the computer and take the quiz. There should
be some answer sheets in the Recruit Training
Book.
82
Ground Cover
Quiz
83
Quiz
1. Action taken directly against the flames?
A. Indirect Attack
B. Direct attack
C. Mop Up
D. None of the above
84
Quiz
2. The 3 types of fuels are?
A. Grass, weeds, sticks
B. Right flank, left flank, fingers
C. Ground, Surface, Crown
D. None of the above
85
Quiz
3. Person in charge of and responsible for the
management of all incident operations?
A. Operations Officer
B. Incident Commander
C. Sector Officer
D. None of the above
86
Quiz
4. ________ refers to the lay of the land and
has a decided effect upon fire behavior.
A. Topography
B. Slope
C. Geographic
D. None of the above
87
Quiz
5. Convection Column is a?
A. Column of smoke and fire
B. Column found in the fire truck
C. Rising column of heated air or gases above a
continuing heat or fire source.
D. None of the above
88
Quiz
6.You have been dispatched to a grass fire at 1:00
pm, what effect does the weather and Relative
Humidity have?
A. Winds will dry out damp fuels
B. R/H is high damp air dampens fuel, fire burns
slowly
C. R/H is low dry air dry fuel fire burns rapidly
D. None of the above
89
Quiz
7. The burned out area in a wildland fire is
called the?
A. Burnout
B. Black
C. Backburn
D. None of the above
90
Quiz
8. The front of the fire is called the?
A. Head
B. Front
C. Spot fires
D. None of the above
91
Quiz
9. _________ includes fires in weeds, grass,
field crops, brush, forest, and similar
vegetation.
A. Green house fire
B. Wildland fire
C. Structure fire
D. None of the above
92
Quiz
10. _________ is an obstruction of the spread
of fire; typically an area or strip devoid of
combustible fuel.
A. Fire truck
B. Hose team
C. Shovels
D. Barrier
93