Presentation Plus! Understanding Psychology
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CHAPTER FOCUS
SECTION 1 Group Behavior
SECTION 2 Conformity and
Obedience
SECTION 3 Conflict and Cooperation
CHAPTER SUMMARY
CHAPTER ASSESSMENT
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Chapter Objectives
Section 1: Group Behavior
• Explain that a group is a collection of
people who interact, share common
goals, and influence how members think
and act. Explore how groups are unified
by the attitudes and standards members
share and their commitment to them. 
Section 2: Conformity and Obedience
• Describe how you may engage in
behavior because of direct or indirect
group pressure or in response to orders
given by authorities.
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the information.
Chapter Objectives (cont.)
Section 3: Conflict and Cooperation
• Explore conflicts between groups that
result because groups influence how
individuals perceive and respond
to situations.
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Reader’s Guide
Main Idea
– A group–a collection of people who interact,
share common goals, and influence how
members think and act–is unified by the
attitudes and standards members share and by
their commitment to them. 
Objectives
– Define and explain different types of groups. 
– Describe the interactive patterns within
groups.
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information. Section 1 begins on page 545 of your textbook.
Reader’s Guide (cont.)
Vocabulary
– group 
– task functions 
– social functions 
– norms 
– ideology 
– social facilitation 
– social inhibition

– group polarization 
– groupthink 
– sociogram
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Click the Speaker button
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Psychology.
What Are Groups?
• A group is a collection of people who
interact, share common goals, and
influence how members think and act. 
• In general, the features that distinguish a
group from an aggregate (a nongroup)
are interdependence, shared goals, and
communication.
group
a collection of people who have
shared goals, a degree of
interdependence, and some
amount of communication
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What Are Groups? (cont.)
• People who congregate but do not
interact are not considered a group but
rather an aggregate. 
• Interaction is the key factor in forming a
group. 
• Several people who interact form a group.
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Interdependence
• To be classified as a group, a collection
of people must demonstrate
interdependence. 
• Interdependence occurs when any action
by one member will affect or influence the
other members. 
• In small groups, members usually have a
direct influence on one another: one
member communicates directly with
another. 
• In larger groups, the influence may be
indirect.
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Interdependence (cont.)
• Communication is crucial to the functions
of a group. 
– In some cases, the communication is directed
outward as a declaration of group
membership. 
– In other instances, the communication is
internal, intended primarily for group members
to announce group activities. 
• Direct communication aids members’
feelings of belonging.
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Shared Goals
• Group members become interdependent
because they share common goals. 
• Groups are usually created to perform
tasks or to organize activities that no
individual could handle alone.
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Shared Goals (cont.)
• The purposes groups serve are of two
general kinds: 
– task functions 
– social functions 
• In most groups, task and social functions
are combined naturally and cannot be
separated easily, although one dominates
in any given group.
task functions
activities directed toward
getting a job done
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social functions
responses directed toward
satisfying the emotional
needs of members
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How Groups Are Held Together
• The factors that work to hold groups
together–that increase the group’s
cohesiveness–include: 
– the attitudes and standards they share 
– their commitment to them
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Norms
• Unwritten rules that govern the behavior
and attitudes of group members are
called norms. 
• They include rules–shared beliefs about
the correct way to behave and what to
believe.
norms
shared standards of behavior
accepted by and expected
from group members
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Norms (cont.)
• These rules may be more like tendencies
or habits. 
• Group members are expected to act in
accordance with group norms and are
punished in some way if they do not. 
• If the norm is very important to the group,
a member who violates it may endure a
more severe social reaction or may be
excluded from the group.
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Ideology
• For a group to be cohesive, members
must share the same values. 
• In some cases, people are drawn together
because they discover they have common
ideas, attitudes, and goals–that is, a
common ideology.
ideology
the set of principles, attitudes,
and defined objectives for
which a group stands
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Ideology (cont.)
• Some people are attracted to a group
because its ideology provides them with
a new set of goals and means for
achieving them. 
• Leaders, heroes and heroines, rallies,
books and pamphlets, slogans, and
symbols all help popularize an ideology,
win converts, and create feelings of
solidarity among group members.
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Commitment
• One factor that increases individual
commitment is the requirement of
personal sacrifice. 
• If a person is willing to pay money,
endure hardship, or undergo humiliation to
join a group, he or she is likely to continue
with it. 
• Cohesiveness will be high if members are
committed to their group. 
• Another factor that strengthens group
commitment is participation.
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Commitment (cont.)
• The processes that hold a group together
must work both ways. 
– The individual must be responsive to the
norms of the group, subscribe to its ideology,
and be prepared to make sacrifices to be part
of it. 
– The group must also respond to the needs of
its members. 
– It cannot achieve cohesiveness if its norms
are unenforceable, if its ideology is
inconsistent with the beliefs of its members, or
if the rewards it offers do not outweigh the
sacrifices it requires.
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Types of Groups
• Groups can be differentiated by ingroups and out-groups and primary and
secondary groups. 
– When a group’s members identify with their
group, they are referred to as the in-group. 
– The out-group includes everyone who is not a
member of the in-group. 
• A primary group is a group of people who
interact daily face-to-face. 
• A secondary group is a larger group of
people with whom you might have more
impersonal relationships.
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Social Facilitation Versus Social
Inhibition
• Social facilitation refers to the tendency
to perform better in the presence of a
group. 
• At times, however, you may perform
poorly in front of crowds. 
• This is an example of social inhibition.
social facilitation
social inhibition
an increase in performance in a decrease in performance
front of a crowd
in front of a crowd
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Social Facilitation Versus Social
Inhibition (cont.)
• Social facilitation and social inhibition may
occur because the presence of a crowd
increases one’s drive or arousal. 
• Psychologist Robert Zajonc (1965) noticed
that social facilitation seemed to occur
when participants performed simple or
well-learned tasks. 
• Social inhibition occurred when
participants performed more complex
tasks or tasks that involved unfamiliar
factors to the participants.
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Social Facilitation Versus Social
Inhibition (cont.)
• The effect of a crowd on your behavior
may also be a reflection of your concern
about being evaluated.
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Interactions Within Groups
• Providing an individual with values and a
sense of identity is only one aspect of the
group’s meaning to him or her. 
• The particular role he or she plays in the
group’s activities is also important. 
• The study of the roles various members
play in the group and how these roles are
interrelated is the study of group structure.
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Interactions Within Groups (cont.)
• There are many aspects to group
structure: 
– the personal relationships between individual
members, such as liking relationships and
trusting relationships 
– the rank of each member on a particular
dimension, such as power, popularity, status,
or amount of resources 
– the roles various members play
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Interactions Within Groups (cont.)
• A role is behavior expected of an
individual because of his or her
membership in a particular group. 
• Each of us has multiple roles that shift as
we merge with different groups. 
• Occasionally, we may find ourselves in
role conflict, such as if you switch schools
and your old school plays your new
school in football.
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Decision Making
• Most groups must make decisions. 
• Group polarization and groupthink are two
processes of group decision making.
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Decision Making (cont.)
Group Polarization
• According to group polarization, the
majority’s point of view is reinforced
through group discussion. 
• If opinions of a group are equally split on
an issue before a discussion, though, the
group discussion usually results in
compromise.
group polarization
theory that group discussion
reinforces the majority’s point of view
and shifts group members’ opinions
to a more extreme position
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Group Polarization
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Decision Making (cont.)
Groupthink
• When groups emphasize sticking
together and fail to adequately appraise
alternative courses of action, they are
guilty of groupthink. 
• Group members may refrain from
criticizing one another, and they may not
discuss opposing viewpoints or critically
evaluate the situation.
groupthink
poor group decision making
that occurs as a result of a
group emphasizing unity over
critical thinking
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Decision Making (cont.)
How to Improve Group Decision Making
• Leaders should avoid strongly advocating
their own views and, instead, encourage
group discussion. 
• During discussion, group members should
hear all viewpoints and challenge one
another’s views. 
• Also, group members should focus on the
task–the issue to be discussed or the
problem to be resolved.
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Decision Making (cont.)
How to Improve Group Decision Making
• Group members should not focus on
group unity when making decisions. 
• They should focus on keeping the lines of
communication open and gathering
enough information to make an unbiased
decision.
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Communication Patterns
• When studying groups, social
psychologists use a technique called the
sociogram to analyze group structure. 
• Sociograms can help psychologists
predict how that individual is likely to
communicate with other group members.
sociogram
a diagram that represents
relationships within a group,
especially likes and dislikes of
members for other members
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Communication Patterns (cont.)
• Another way to discover the structure of
a group is to examine the communication
patterns in the group–who says what to
whom and how often. 
• A centralized organization seems more
useful for task-oriented groups, whereas a
decentralized network is more useful in
socially oriented groups.
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Sociograms
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Leadership
• All groups, whether made up of students,
workers, Girl Scouts, or politicians, have
leaders. 
• A leader embodies the norms and ideals
of the group and represents the group to
outsiders. 
• Within the group, a leader initiates action,
gives orders, makes decisions, and
settles disputes.
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Leadership (cont.)
• Most of us think of leadership as a
personality trait. 
• One psychologist (Stogdill, 1974) identified
leadership as being an aspect of
personality–the ability to get people to
comply. 
• Other researchers (Blake & Mouton, 1985)
argue that leaders are concerned to some
degree with both output (that is, the task)
and the welfare of the people.
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Leadership (cont.)
• Another way to think of leadership is as the
end product of the reinforcements of the
group being led (Berry & Houston, 1993). 
• In this way, leadership is simply the center
or focus of group action, an instrument for
achieving the group’s goal or a result of
group interaction (Stogdill, 1974). 
• Different circumstances call for different
kinds of leaders.
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Leadership (cont.)
• One kind of leadership is called
transformational leadership. 
• This leadership produces large-scale
organizational change by changing the
goals of group members and deepening
their commitment. 
• Transformational leaders are charismatic,
they provide individualized attention to
group members, and they are able to
enthuse and intellectually stimulate group
members.
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Leavitt’s Communication Network
System
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Leadership (cont.)
Leadership Styles
• The three leadership styles are
authoritarian, laissez-faire, and
democratic. 
– An authoritarian leader makes all the decisions
and assigns tasks to group members. 
– A laissez-faire leader is only minimally
involved in a group’s decision making. 
– A democratic leader encourages group
members to come to decisions through
consensus.
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Section Assessment
Review the Vocabulary Explain how
groups organized for task functions
differ from those organized for
social functions.
Task function groups exist to get the
job done. Social function groups exist
to fulfill the emotional needs of
members.
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Visualize the Main Idea Using a
graphic organizer similar to the one
found on page 554 of your textbook,
identify and describe three styles of
leadership.
Authoritarian leaders make all the decisions
and assign tasks.
Laissez-faire leaders are minimally involved
and let the group make its own decisions.
Democratic leaders encourage groups to
make decisions through consensus.
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Recall Information What is the
difference between an in-group and
an out-group. Give an example of
each group.
In-group members identify with their
group. All non-members of the group
are the out-group. An example is an
athletic team that considers all
people who are not starters on the
team as the out-group.
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Think Critically When might a
group benefit from a laissez-faire
style of leadership? When might a
group benefit from authoritarian
leadership?
Answers will vary.
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Section Assessment (cont.)
What kind of interaction occurs with
each model? 
Explain why the Circle network is
slower but more satisfying than the
Wheel network for solving tasks.
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Reader’s Guide
Main Idea
– You may engage in behavior because of direct
or indirect group pressure or in response to
orders given by authorities. 
Objectives
– Identify ways that groups can influence an
individual’s behavior. 
– Explain why most people tend to obey authority
figures.
50
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information. Section 2 begins on page 555 of your textbook.
Reader’s Guide (cont.)
Vocabulary
– conformity 
– obedience
Click the Speaker button
to listen to Exploring
Psychology.
51
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information. Section 2 begins on page 555 of your textbook.
Group Pressure to Conform
• Psychologist Solomon Asch (1952)
designed what has become a classic
experiment to test conformity to pressure
from one’s peers. 
• Conformity involves any behavior that
you engage in because of direct or
indirect group pressure.
conformity
acting in accordance with
some specified authority
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Group Pressure to Conform (cont.)
• Asch found that people may conform to
other people’s ideas of the truth, even
when they disagree. 
• Asch found that almost one-third of his 50
participants conformed at least half the
time to the viewpoint of five hired actors. 
• These conformers he called the
“yielders.” 
• Asch called those who did not conform
“independents.”
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Group Pressure to Conform (cont.)
• According to one theory, most children
are taught the overriding importance of
being liked and of being accepted. 
• Conformity is the standard means of
gaining this approval.
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Asch’s Experiment
These two cards
were shown to
participants in one
trial of Asch’s
experiment on
conformity. The
participant’s task
was to determine
whether the length
of the standard line
matches the length
of the comparison
lines. The actual
discrimination is
easy.
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Why Do People Conform?
• One of the most important findings of
Asch’s experiment was that if even one
person among the first five actors failed
to conform to the group’s judgment, the
participant was able to stick to his own
perceptions. 
• It seems that it is hardest to stand alone. 
• Later researchers have shown that under
some conditions, a minority view can
come to win over the larger group
(Moscovici, 1985).
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Why Do People Conform? (cont.)
• A minority dissenter may also serve an
informational purpose by making others
question whether the majority view is
actually right. 
• In Asch’s experiment, participants
conformed–they responded to match the
other group members’ responses, yet they
might not have actually changed their
beliefs that the lines matched. 
• This is an example of compliance.
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Why Do People Conform? (cont.)
• Compliance occurs when we give in to
social pressure in our public behavior;
however, we do not actually change our
private beliefs. 
• A method of gaining compliance is the
foot-in-the-door technique. 
• This occurs when you get a person to
agree to a relatively minor request. 
• This minor request, which the participant
is likely to agree with, is really a set-up for
a major request.
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Why Do People Conform? (cont.)
• There are several factors that increase
conforming behavior in people including:

– belonging to a group that emphasizes the role
of groups rather than individuals 
– the desire to be liked by other members of the
group 
– low self-esteem 
– social shyness 
– lack of familiarity with a task 
– group size 
– cultural influences
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Obedience to Authority
• The influence other people have on your
attitudes and actions is considerable. 
• Obedience, or behavior in response to
orders given by authorities, can be either
useful or destructive. 
• Psychologists are more interested in the
negative aspects of obedience.
obedience
a change in attitude or behavior
brought about by social pressure
to comply with people perceived
to be authorities
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Obedience to Authority (cont.)
• They know from cases in history such as
German Nazism and American atrocities
in Vietnam that individuals frequently
obey irrational commands. 
• In fact, people often obey authority even
when obedience goes against their
conscience and their whole system of
morality.
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The Milgram Experiment
• Psychologist Stanley Milgram conducted
the most famous investigation of
obedience in 1963. 
• Milgram wanted to discover how far
participants in an experiment would follow
his instructions and how much electric
shock they would be willing to give a fellow
human being.
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The Milgram Experiment (cont.)
• As the experiment began, the “learner”
continually gave wrong answers, and the
“teacher” began to administer the
prescribed shocks from an impressivelooking shock generator. 
• The generator had a dial that ranged from
15 volts, which was labeled “Slight
Shock,” to 450 volts, which was labeled
“Danger: Severe Shock.” 
• After each of the learner’s mistakes, the
teacher was told to increase the voltage
by one level.
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The Milgram Experiment (cont.)
• As the experiment progressed, the
learner made many mistakes, and the
teacher was instructed to give
increasingly severe shocks. 
• The experiment ended either when the
maximum 450 volts was administered or
when the teacher refused to administer
any more shocks. 
• If at any point the teacher indicated that
he wanted to stop, the experimenter
calmly told him to continue. 
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The Milgram Experiment (cont.)
• Sixty-five percent of the participants
delivered the full range of shocks. 
• What accounts for this surprisingly high
level of obedience? 
• Part of the answer is that the
experimenter represents a legitimate
authority. 
• People assume that such an authority
knows what he is doing, even when his
instructions seem to run counter to their
own standards of moral behavior.
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The Milgram Experiment (cont.)
• Milgram’s experiment is important
because it questions so many different
aspects of psychology. 
• The experiment raised questions about the
ethics of some psychological experiments. 
• Since the experiment, the APA has
changed the ethical standards for
experiments. 
• Today all experiments, especially those that
could cause harm to the participants, are
carefully screened by research committees.
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The Zimbardo Experiment
• Philip Zimbardo and his colleagues
(Haney & Zimbardo, 1975) performed an
experiment that randomly divided male
volunteers into two groups: “prisoners”
and “prison guards.” 
• Zimbardo sent both groups to live in a
simulated “prison” set up in the basement
of a Stanford University building. 
• He gave the guards instructions to
maintain order.
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The Zimbardo Experiment (cont.)
• Within two days, most of the guards had
become intoxicated with power, and they
acted cruelly toward the prisoners, often
without reason. 
• At the same time, the prisoners began
showing signs of extreme stress, often
acting subdued and depressed. 
• The emotional reactions were so extreme
that experimenters ended the planned
two-week experiment after only six days.
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The Zimbardo Experiment (cont.)
• Although the participants in this experiment
were emotionally mature and stable, the
roles these individuals adopted changed
the way they acted. 
• The experiment not only changed the
ethical standards of experimentation in
psychology but it also demonstrated the
power that situations can have in changing
how we feel, think, and behave. 
• The social situation of being in the prison
changed the rules, roles, and expectations
of the students (Zimbardo, 1975).
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The Zimbardo Experiment (cont.)
Why Do People Obey?
• Psychologists have proposed that people
learn to obey authority figures. 
• Throughout our lives, we have learned to
follow orders. 
• However, we are more likely to follow
these rules when the authority figure is
actually present.
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Section Assessment
Review the Vocabulary Give an
example of a way you show
conformity.
Answers will vary. Think of useful ways
to conform, as well as ways that can
lead to poor decision making or
harmful behavior.
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Visualize the Main Idea Duplicate
and complete the chart found on
page 562 of your textbook
describing the Asch experiment.
Hypothesis: People will conform to a
group decision even if they know it is
wrong.
Method: Describe the various trials
and the results of each trial.
Results: Describe the results of
yielders and independents.
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Recall Information How is
compliance related to to
conformity?
Compliance is a change in behavior
without an accompanying change in
thinking. Outwardly, the person
appears to be conforming.
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Think Critically Do you think that
conforming to a group is always a
negative thing to do? Explain.
No. Some examples include wearing
coats in cold weather and abiding by
society’s traffic regulations.
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Recently in a college dorm 3
people died in a fire. Although the
alarm sounded, there had been 18
false alarms in the same dorm in
the four months preceding the fire.
How can something like repeated
false alarms dull the senses to the
point that antisocial or harmful
behavior seems acceptable?
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Reader’s Guide
Main Idea
– Conflicts between groups are a fact of everyday
life because groups influence how individuals
perceive and respond to situations. 
Objectives
– Explain causes of group conflict and
cooperation. 
– Summarize how group dynamics promote or
restrain altruism and aggression.
77
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
information. Section 3 begins on page 564 of your textbook.
Reader’s Guide (cont.)
Vocabulary
– aggression 
– catharsis 
– altruism 
– diffusion of responsibility

– bystander effect 
– social loafing 
– deindividuation
Click the Speaker button
to listen to Exploring
Psychology.
78
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
information. Section 3 begins on page 564 of your textbook.
Aggression
• Any behavior that is intended to cause
physical or psychological harm is called
aggression. 
• It seems that our society is being torn
apart by increasing violence and
aggression. 
• Psychologists have proposed several
theories to explain aggression.
aggression
behavior intended to do
physical or psychological
harm to others
79
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A Model of Aggression
80
Biological Influences
• Psychologists have proposed that
humans have innate biological factors
that cause aggression. 
• Neurotransmitters, such as serotonin,
influence a person’s aggressive behavior. 
• When a person has too much serotonin in
the brain, he or she may experience violent
outbursts. 
• Psychologists, though, warn against
labeling aggression as caused by only
biological factors.
81
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Cognitive Factors
• Psychologist Albert Bandura proposes that
children learn aggressive behavior by
observing and imitating their parents. 
• His social learning theory also proposes
that aggressive behavior may be
reinforced in several ways: 
– Parents who use aggression to discipline their
children may be teaching their children to use
aggression. 
– The media–television, movies, video games,
and music–may also be teaching aggressive
behavior to children.
82
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Personality Factors
• Certain personality traits, such as
impulsiveness and having little empathy,
combined with favoring domination can
turn a person into a bully. 
• Usually past experience is the best
predictor. 
• An aggressive child usually becomes an
aggressive adult.
83
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Environmental Factors
• Sometimes something provokes you and
you become violent. 
• Psychologists explain acts of violence that
arise from unexpected situations with the
frustration-aggression hypothesis. 
• This is the idea that frustration or a failure
to obtain something expected leads to
aggression. 
• The hypothesis, though, fails to note that
frustration does not always lead to
aggressive behavior.
84
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Environmental Factors (cont.)
• Leonard Berkowitz (1989) proposed a
modified frustration-aggression
hypothesis. 
• Berkowitz proposed that frustration leads
to aggression only in certain instances.
85
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Controlling Aggression
• Aggression is a combination of
biological, cognitive, personality, and
environmental factors. 
• One method of controlling aggression is
through catharsis. 
• Critics of catharsis believe that any
expression of aggression is negative.
catharsis
releasing anger or aggression
by letting out powerful
negative emotions
86
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Controlling Aggression (cont.)
• Other strategies of controlling aggression
include punishing children for violent
behavior and cutting down on the violence
they observe. 
• Aggressive behavior can be controlled by
teaching people to accept frustrations and
move on and to react to disappointments
in ways other than violence.
87
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Group Conflict Versus Cooperation
• Conflicts between groups are a fact of
everyday life. 
• A group of psychologists (Sherif & Hovland,
1961) created a boys’ camp to study
intergroup relations. 
• From the beginning of the experiment, the
boys were divided into two groups. 
• The psychologists had hypothesized that
when these two groups of boys were placed
in competitive situations, where one group
could achieve its goals only at the expense
of the other, hostility would develop.
88
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Group Conflict Versus Cooperation
(cont.)
• The psychologists demonstrated the
ease with which they could produce unity
within the two boys’ groups and hatred
between them. 
• The experimenters then tried to see what
might end the conflict and create harmony
between the two groups. 
• They deliberately invented a series of
“emergencies” so that the boys either
would have to help one another or lose
the chance to do or get something they all
wanted.
89
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Group Conflict Versus Cooperation
• Gradually, through cooperative
activities, intergroup hostility and
tensions lessened. 
(cont.)
• The results of this experiment showed
that the crucial factor in eliminating group
hostility was cooperation. 
• The question of conflict applies to large
communities, too, but then the possibility
of a social trap is greater. 
• A social trap occurs when individuals in a
group decide not to cooperate.
90
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Group Conflict Versus Cooperation
• One approach to overcome a social
trap is to use laws to bring about
behavior changes. 
(cont.)
• Other ways to change people’s behavior
is to educate them concerning the issues
and to communicate the idea that “Yes,
you do make a difference.” 
• In this way, people find it more beneficial
to cooperate than to act in a purely selfish
manner.
91
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Altruism
• Altruism means helping another, often
with a risk to oneself, for reasons other
than the expectation of a reward. 
• Whether you help or not may depend on
the diffusion of responsibility.
altruism
helping others, often at a cost
or risk, for reasons other than
rewards
92
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Diffusion of Responsibility
• Sometimes when several people are faced
with a common problem and there is no
opponent, they may not even see
themselves as a group. 
• There have been many famous examples
of muggings, rapes, and murders that
were committed in public while a large
group of people watched without
intervening or calling for help. 
• Psychologists have tried to find out why
these people did not act by studying
artificial crises.
93
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Diffusion of Responsibility (cont.)
• Psychologists have suggested that this
behavior was the result of diffusion of
responsibility. 
• In other words, because several people
were present, each participant assumed
someone else would help.
diffusion of responsibility
the presence of others lessens
an individual’s feelings of
responsibility for his or her
actions or failure to act
94
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Diffusion of Responsibility (cont.)
• The researchers found that in experiments
where people could see the other
participants, the same pattern emerged. 
• The bystander effect occurs when a
person refrains from taking action
because of the presence of others.
bystander effect
an individual does not take
action because of the
presence of others
95
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Diffusion of Responsibility (cont.)
• These findings suggest that the larger the
crowd or group of bystanders, the more
likely any given individual is to feel that he
or she is not responsible for whatever is
going on (Darley & Latané, 1968). 
• Another influence that inhibits action is the
tendency to minimize the need for any
response. 
• It is easier to persuade yourself that
nothing needs to be done if you look
around and see other people behaving
calmly.
96
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Diffusion of Responsibility (cont.)
• Both the presence of a leader and being
familiar with the person needing help,
however, increase the likelihood and
speed of help being offered. 
• The same is true of knowing what kind of
help is required, seeing the correct form of
assistance being modeled, or expecting
future interactions with the person
needing help. 
• These situations increase the chances
that assistance will be offered when it is
most needed (Baron & Byrne, 1991).
97
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Diffusion of Responsibility (cont.)
Social Loafing
• Your evaluations of a situation also may
lead to social loafing. 
• Social loafing occurs when you allow
your contributions to the group to slack off
because you realize that individual
contributions are not as apparent and
easily measured in a group setting.
social loafing
the tendency to work less
hard when sharing the
workload with others
98
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Diffusion of Responsibility (cont.)
Deindividuation
• When people act as individuals, obey
their consciences, and are concerned
with self-evaluation, we think of them as
individualistic. 
• When deindividuation occurs, people
lose their sense of self and follow group
behaviors.
deindividuation
individuals behave irrationally
when there is less chance of
being personally identified
99
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Diffusion of Responsibility (cont.)
Deindividuation
• The deindividuated person acts without
thinking about self and goes along with
the group. 
• Researchers believe that being in a crowd
may reduce feelings of guilt or selfawareness that one ordinarily feels. 
• Social pressure can affect us in positive
ways, too. 
• Maybe you went out of your way to act
compassionately while others witnessed
your actions.
100
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Section Assessment
Review the Vocabulary How does
diffusion of responsibility affect
individuals in a group?
Individuals are less likely to act and
take responsibility when others are
around because they expect
someone else to act.
101
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to display the answer.
Section Assessment (cont.)
Visualize the Main Idea Using a
graphic organizer like the one
shown on page 570 of your
textbook, compare and contract
aggression and altruism.
Aggression is intended to do physical
or psychological harm. Altruism is the
act of helping others without
expecting a reward, and it may
involve risk. The overlap exists in that
both acts are voluntary and involve a
choice by the individual.
102
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to display the answer.
Section Assessment (cont.)
Recall Information What is
deindividuation, and how does it
occur?
Deindividuation is irrational behavior
performed by an individual when
there is little or no chance of being
identified. It occurs when people lose
their sense of self and let the group
direct their behavior.
103
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Think Critically Do you think that
most students work harder on
projects they must complete alone
for a grade or on team projects in
which no individual grades are
given? Explain your reasoning.
Answers will vary and will likely
depend on the individual and the
amount of pressure exerted by the
group.
104
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Why did you help or not help when
your fellow classmate accidentally
dropped his or her belongings?
105
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Section 1: Group Behavior
• To be classified as a group, a collection of
people must demonstrate
interdependence. 
• Groups serve two general purposes: task
functions and social functions. 
• To be part of a group, an individual must be
responsive to the norms of the group,
subscribe to its ideology, and be prepared
to make sacrifices in order to be part of it. 
• Groups can be differentiated by in-groups
and out-groups and primary and
secondary groups.
107
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Section 1: Group Behavior (cont.)
• Research has shown that social facilitation
seems to occur when participants perform
simple tasks, whereas social inhibition
seems to occur when participants perform
more complex tasks. 
• Group polarization and groupthink are two
processes of group decision making.
108
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Section 2: Conformity and Obedience
• Psychologists believe that people conform
to gain approval. 
• Compliance occurs when an individual
gives in to social pressure in his or her
public behavior but does not actually
change private beliefs. 
• Psychologists believe that people conform
because they learn to obey authority
figures and to follow orders and rules.
109
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Section 3: Conflict and Cooperation
• Aggression is a combination of
biological, cognitive, personality, and
environmental factors. 
• Psychologists have found that the larger
the crowd or group of bystanders, the more
likely any given individual is to feel that he
or she is not responsible for whatever is
going on.
110
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Section 3: Conflict and
Cooperation (cont.)
• Social loafing occurs when people allow
their contributions to the group to slack off
because they realize that individual
contributions are not as apparent and
easily measured in a group setting. 
• When deindividuation occurs, people lose
their sense of self and follow group
behaviors.
111
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to display the information.
Click the mouse button to return to the Contents slide.
Reviewing Vocabulary
Use the correct term or concept to complete the following
sentences.
1. _______________
Group polarization occurs when the majority’s
point of view is reinforced and an extreme
view dominates.
2. A behavior that is intended to cause physical or
psychological harm is called __________.
aggression
3. A group with a common __________
ideology shares a set
of principles, attitudes, and defined objectives for
which the group stands.
4. __________
Conformity involves any behavior that an
individual engages in because of direct or indirect
group pressure.
113
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to display the answers.
Reviewing Vocabulary (cont.)
Use the correct term or concept to complete the following
sentences.
5. The tendency to perform poorly in front of a group
is known as _____________.
social inhibition
6. _____________
Deindividuation occurs when people lose their
sense of self and follow group behaviors.
7. Punching a pillow to release anger is a form of
__________.
catharsis
8. The tendency to perform better in the presence of
a group is known as ______________.
social facilitation
Obediance is behavior in response to orders
9. __________
given by authorities.
114
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to display the answers.
Reviewing Vocabulary (cont.)
Use the correct term or concept to complete the following
sentences.
10. The _____________
bystander effect occurs when a person
refrains from taking action because of the
presence of others.
115
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to display the answer.
Recalling Facts
Using a diagram similar to the one
on page 573 of your textbook,
identify the characteristics of a
group.
Characteristics of a group are
interdependence, shared goals, and
communication.
116
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to display the answer.
Recalling Facts
What factors work to hold a group
together? What factors increase
the commitment of a person to
the group?
Shared norms, a common ideology,
and high commitment and
participation of group members work
to hold a group together. Commitment
increases when the individuals can
share in group decisions and share
the rewards and when there is a
requirement of personal sacrifice.
117
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to display the answer.
Recalling Facts
Why do people conform?
People conform to increase their
sense of belonging to a group and to
avoid standing out.
118
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to display the answer.
Recalling Facts
How does the cognitive theory
explain aggression?
The cognitive theory assumes
aggression is learned in childhood by
observing and imitating the behavior
of models.
119
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Recalling Facts
What are two factors that inhibit individual
action within a group setting?
Diffusion of responsibility and the bystander
effect inhibit individual action within a group
setting. Diffusion of responsibility occurs
when the presence of others lessens an
individual’s feelings of responsibility. When a
person refrains from taking action because
of the presence of others, it is known as the
bystander effect.
120
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to display the answer.
Building Skills
Interpreting a Graph
Milgram was upset about the willingness of his
participants to obey an authority. In later
experiments, he tried to find ways to reduce
obedience. He found that distance between the
teacher and the learner had an effect. The graph on
the next slide shows the percentage of “teachers”
who obeyed orders at three different physical
distances. Review the graph, then answer the
questions following.
121
Building Skills
Interpreting a Graph
122
Building Skills
Interpreting a Graph
What percentage of teachers obeyed orders
when they could only hear the learner?
65 percent of teachers
obeyed orders when
they could only hear
the learner.
123
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to display the answer.
Building Skills
Interpreting a Graph
What happened to the percentage of
teachers who obeyed orders when they
were in the same room and could see the
learner? When they
were asked to touch
the learner?
The percentage
declined to 40 percent
and 30 percent,
respectively.
124
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to display the answer.
Building Skills
Interpreting a Graph
What reasons can you give for the differences
in the percentage of participants obeying
authority in the three physical distances
illustrated in the graph?
The better one knows a
person or the closer one
physically is to a person,
the less likely one will be
to harm that person. It
could be said that it is
easier to harm another
when you don’t have to
witness the
consequences.
125
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to display the answer.
I have just been hired by a large company
that was once a leader in its markets but
has not kept up with the changes in
technology.
I have been told that I have three years to
make the company profitable. What kind of
leader do I need to be?
I need to be a transformational leader
126
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to display the answer.
Click the mouse button to return to the Contents slide.
Explore online information about the
topics introduced in this chapter.
Click on the Connect button to launch your browser and go to the
Understanding Psychology Web site. At this site, you will find
interactive activities, current events information, and Web sites
correlated with the chapters and units in the textbook. When you
finish exploring, exit the browser program to return to this
presentation. If you experience difficulty connecting to the Web
site, manually launch your Web browser and go to
http://psychology.glencoe.com
Think of the groups to which you belong–
your family, your friends, the band, a sports
team, and so on. What effect do these
groups have on how you think, act, and
feel? Pick one group to which you belong
and, in your journal, describe any influences
this group has over you.
Write your thoughts on the following
question: Can a group formed for a task
function become a group with a social
function and vice versa?
Write about times that you have seen the
foot-in-the-door technique used to gain
compliance. If possible include examples of
solicitation letters that you have received
that demonstrate this technique.
Write about an incident in which you used
aggression to resolve a conflict. Then write
about an incident in which you controlled
your aggression. Compare the results and
your feelings about the two incidents.
Your Stripes or
Your Morality
Read the case study presented on
page 563 of your textbook. Be
prepared to answer the questions that
appear on the following slides. A
discussion prompt and additional
information follow the questions.
Continued on next slide.
This feature is found on page 563 of your textbook.
Your Stripes or
Your Morality
Why did Rockwood refuse to
conform to group pressure?
His moral principles took precedence over his
orders. He could not obey his orders to not help
Haitian prisoners who were being mistreated and
tortured. Rockwood felt it was morally wrong to deny
his fellow human beings the help they needed.
Continued on next slide.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
answer. This feature is found on page 563 of your textbook.
Your Stripes or
Your Morality
Does this case study support the
findings of Milgram and Asch? Explain.
The Asch and Milgram studies provide examples
of people conforming and obeying an authority
figure. The case of Lawrence Rockwood is an
example of someone unwilling to conform and
obey because of strong moral beliefs. So no, this
case study does not support Milgram and
Asch’s findings.
Continued on next slide.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
answer. This feature is found on page 563 of your textbook.
Your Stripes or
Your Morality
Critical Thinking Under what circumstances
might Rockwood have obeyed his orders?
Do you think that conformity depends upon
the situation or the person? Or both?
Explain your answer.
Continued on next slide.
This feature is found on page 563 of your textbook.
Your Stripes or
Your Morality
Discuss the following:
How was Rockwood’s situation similar to
the participants’ situation in the Asch
experiment? How was it different? What
dilemma did Rockwood face? What was
his decision? What was the military’s
response? Do you think Rockwood made
a wise decision? Explain.
Continued on next slide.
This feature is found on page 563 of your textbook.
Your Stripes or
Your Morality
The Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces
unanimously upheld Rockwood’s conviction.
They did not find any significant procedural or
international law violations. In their opinion,
Walter T. Cox, the chief judge for the Court of
Appeals, wrote: 
“The difference between a military organization
and a mob is the role of command and control in
channeling, directing and restraining human
behavior.”
Continued on next slide.
This feature is found on page 563 of your textbook.
Your Stripes or
Your Morality
– Rockwood’s lawyers announced in 1999 that he is
appealing his conviction to the U.S. Supreme Court. 
– He faces two challenges. First his lawyers must
convince the Supreme Court to hear his case. 
– Then they must convince the nine justices to overturn
the $3,000 fine and discharge.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
information. This feature is found on page 563 of your textbook.
Continued on next slide.
Continued on next slide.
Answers:
1. A group has the
following traits:
interdependence,
shared goals, and
communication. 
2. Each member will
be affected by the
actions of the other
members. 
4. It is possible that a group is
held together by an
agreement on standards of
behavior, a share
commitment, as well as
shared ideas and goals.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to
display the answers.
3. They help you do
things (task
functions) and they
fulfill emotional
needs (social
functions). 
Continued on next slide.
Answers:
1. Pastor–moral
authority; military–
commands troops;
physician–provides
medical advice 
2. Pastor–
congregation;
military–lower
ranks; physician–
patients 
3. Society recognizes
their authority and
respect is often
taught by parents. 
4. Yes, we should be
limited by moral
principles of decent
or right actions.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to
display the answers.
Continued on next slide.
Answers:
1. Individuals in a group
decide not to
cooperate. 
2. Both the individual and
the group are harmed by
a social trap. 
3. Possible solutions
include: laws to regulate
behavior and education
to change behavior.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to
display the answers.
Stereotypes
From the Classroom of James Murray
St. Francis Indian School, St. Francis, SD
Break into groups of three or four people.
Your teacher will be presenting each of
the groups a picture. 
As a group write down your basic
assumptions of the people in the pictures. 
When you have completed your list,
discuss as a class the questions on the
next slide.
Continued on next slide.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to
display the information.
Stereotypes
From the Classroom of James Murray
St. Francis Indian School, St. Francis, SD
Review your list of assumptions and the picture.
What parts of the photograph led you to the
assumptions that you made? 
Discuss what stereotyping is and its effects. 
Identify examples of stereotyping that you
encounter in everyday life. 
Write a reflective essay on how stereotyping
affects your life. Include examples of stereotypes
that you have of others, and what stereotypes
others have of you.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to
display the information.
When the Milgram experiment was altered so
that the participants saw two other supposed
participants refuse to continue, only 10
percent gave the highest level of shock.
National Crime Victimization Survey
Professional Athletes
Click a hyperlink to go to the corresponding slide.
A 1995 National Crime Victimization Survey
found that more than half of rape victims were
under 18 years old. The survey also reported
that 85 percent of rape victims were sexually
assaulted by a family member or
acquaintance. Only about one-third of rapes
are reported to the police.
Professional athletes are paid high salaries
and their actions frequently earn them the
public’s perception as self-centered and
spoiled. However, some professional
athletes, like basketball star David Robinson
and football greats Steve Young and Darrell
Green, demonstrate altruism by giving their
time, money, guidance, and encouragement
to various charitable causes.
The United States is a country made of a wide
variety of ethnic groups, most of whom came as
immigrants. Using 1990 census data, Gregory
Rodriguez of Pepperdine University studied
efforts that recent immigrants made to fit into the
norms of American life. He examined several
areas of commitment to norms including
acquiring citizenship, learning English, and
buying a home.
Continued on next slide.
He found that 75 percent of the immigrants who
had been in America for at least 40 years had
become citizens. The same percentage had
learned English within 10 years of coming to the
United States. In addition, within 20 years of
coming to this country, more than 60 percent
owned their own home. His conclusion is that the
majority of immigrants accept the cultural norms
of America.
Control Groups
When conducting experiments, researchers use an
experimental group and a control group. Research
on social facilitation usually uses people performing
tasks alone as the control group. In a 1998 study,
psychologists demonstrated that people who are
assigned some task to perform alone will infer that
they are being monitored. Since they assume they
are being monitored, they should not be used as a
control group to test the theory that people perform
better in the presence of a group.
Online Communities
Group Polarization
Click a hyperlink to go to the corresponding slide.
Online Communities
• Online communities are a new type of group that
allows members who share a common goal or
interest to meet on the Internet. 
• Like many groups, online communities face the
challenge of membership commitment. 
• These communities often have a core of supporters
and many members who are rarely, if ever, involved
in the group. 
• Online communities never meet face-to-face, and
they can request membership participation but can do
little if members choose not to participate.Continued on next slide.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
information.
Online Communities
• In addition, technical problems can discourage even
interested members. 
• However, as technology advances, more people will
find themselves participating in online communities. 
• What can online communities do to encourage
membership participation?
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
information.
Group Polarization
• Studies of group polarization in the 1960s showed
that groups will make riskier decisions than
individuals in the group. 
• However, more recent studies have shown that the
group decision will become stronger in whichever
direction the individuals tended. 
• For example, if the individuals in the group
independently favor a conservative position, the group
as a whole will likely take an even more conservative
position than the individuals in the group. 
• Why do groups tend to take more extreme positions
than the individual group members?
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
information.
Conflict Resolution
• Many companies have restructured their workplace
environments into self-directed work teams. 
• People on these teams work closely together to
accomplish specific team goals. 
• When people work closely together, conflicts are likely
to arise. 
• One critical ingredient to successful teamwork is the
team’s ability to resolve conflict among
team members.
Continued on next slide.
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information.
Conflict Resolution
• Training in conflict resolution helps all team members
learn that conflicts can be resolved constructively. 
• They also learn that the resolution of conflicts can lead
to stronger, more dynamic teams. 
• Why do conflicts arise in the workplace? How can
teams help resolve conflicts constructively?
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
information.
• Observe the interactions within a small group in your
community or perhaps a group with which you are
affiliated. 
• Interview each member in the group to learn with
whom you are most likely to interact. 
• Then analyze the group’s hierarchical structure and
represent it by constructing a sociogram like the ones
pictured on page 553 of your textbook. 
• Present your finished sociograms to the class and
explain the interactions that they represent.
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information.
• At different times and in different situations
we all make conscious choices to conform or
not conform. 
• Observe intentional acts of conformity and
nonconformity that you encounter in a specific
12-hour period. 
• Do not to reveal the identity or personal details
of the people you observe.
Continued on next slide.
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information.
• However, keep a list of the conforming and
nonconforming behaviors and the evidence
you have to support your findings. 
• How many acts of conformity did you notice
during the observation period? 
• How many acts of nonconformity? 
• How did you identify each?
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information.
The National Center for Education Statistics reported
the following statistics from a 1997 survey of 1,234
public schools around the country. 
– Ten percent of the schools had experienced one or
more serious violent crimes in the past year. Serious
violent crimes ranged from robbery to murder. 
– The number of schools reporting at least one less
serious violent episode ranged from 45 percent for
elementary schools to 77 percent for high schools. 
– More than 75 percent of schools have a formal violence
prevention or reduction.
Continued on next slide.
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information.
• What factors trigger violence in schools? 
• What can be done to prevent violence
in schools? 
• What security measures would you
recommend for high schools?
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information.
• Read the Psychology and You feature on
page 549 of your textbook. 
• Discuss the following:
Are the norms discussed in the
feature universal or culturally
based? How do social norms vary
among cultures? Do social norms
vary from generation to generation?
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information.
End of Custom Shows
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