What is an Argument?
What is Persuasion?
What is argument NOT?
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An argument is not simply a
confrontational activity
designed to denigrate the
opposition’s position.
It is usually not
--An absolute truth.
--A revelation or brand new
insight.
--The last word.
--Bad-tempered complaining.
--An exercise in pure logic.
--A chance to prove that you’re
smarter than everyone else.
What is Persuasion?

One of the major types
of
composition/speaking
whose purpose is to
convince others of the
wisdom of a certain
idea, belief, line of
action. Persuasion is
calculated to arouse
people to some action.
What is an argument?

One of the four
chief forms of
discourse. Its
purpose is to
convince by
establishing the
truth or falsity of a
proposition.
What is an argument?

An argument
involves the
process of
establishing a claim
and then proving it
with the use of
logical reasoning,
examples, and
research.
What is a persuasive essay?
You are asked to prove something.
 Give reasons why.
 Establish a line of reasoning whereby you establish your
claims and persuade of their validity.
 Present arguments against your reasons. Show them to
be false.
 Take a stand.
 Ask or call for an action.

Persuade, convince, tell why, give reasons for or against,
support, attack, defend, qualify…. It would be better for
students if we wore uniforms.
Argumentation/Persuasion

SAME: Purpose—
 TO

CONVINCE
DIFFERENT:
 Modus
operandi —
 Ways/styles
of CONVINCING.
Broad Types of Arguments
Classical /
Contemporary /
Informal:
Formal:
Does not attempt to
An abstract
prove absolutely;
discipline; deals
gives good reasons
in absolutes.
and persuasive
arguments.
 Aristotelian
 Toulmin
 Cicero
 Rogerian
Aristotle/Cicero
Classical

Rhetorical Triangle (must BALANCE)
Writer (ethos)
 Audience (pathos)
 Message (logos)

Purpose/Aim/Goal
 Rhetorical context (background, situation, occasion)


How does your response change as the rhetorical context
changes?
Aristotelian/Cicero
Classical
Outline of Classical Argument

Introduction

Background of Topic

Proposition/Thesis

Partitions/Outline of what will follow

Body/Main Argument

Counter Arguments and Responses/Refutation

Conclusion/Summary of main argument
Seeks to defeat opponent, military terminology

Toulmin / Informal Logic

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Claim: Statement of position, a stand (thesis statement)
Reasons: Supports claims
Warrant: Unstated assumption. The audience must
accept the warrant to make an argument persuasive.
Appeals to values and beliefs.
Grounds: Claims, reasons, warrants—EVIDENCE
Backing: Supports the warrant. May not be accepted IF
the warrant is unclear.
Conditions of rebuttal: Bring up and address the counter
arguments.
Qualifier: Limits a claim or its scope. (few absolutes in
life!)
Rogerian Argumentation: A modern
alternative to traditional argument
Goals:
1. Seeking common ground
2. Give credit to opponent(s)’ argument(s)
3. Building trust
4. Reducing threat
5. Avoiding confrontation
Builds bridges rather than burning them.

Rogerian Argumentation: A modern
alternative to traditional argument

When people perceive they are being attacked,
they stop listening, become defensive and
perhaps even hostile.

If people perceive their arguments are being
heard, taken seriously, and understood, they
will be more open to listening to an
opponent’s position.
How do I start?
BASICS of Building an Argument
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Rhetorical Appeals
Rhetorical Situations
Rhetorical Modes
Fallacies
Reasoning
 Deductive
 Inductive
Outlining
Supporting
Writing
THE ARGUMENT ESSAY
PROCESS

“WORK” the prompt / assignment
Deconstruct --analyze
 Mark key words/elements
 Choose your position (defend, challenge, qualify)



Brainstorm
Plan Support (facts, statistics,
details/description, quotations, definitions,
examples, recognition of opposition, anecdotes,
compare/contrast, appeal to authority,
emotional appeals (diction, tone)
THE ARGUMENT ESSAY
PROCESS
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
Outline to be sure you have all the needed elements
Develop the Introduction:

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Develop the Body of your Essay:

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Refer specifically to the prompt/topic
State your position in a clearly-worded thesis
Support
Transitions that connect to the thesis
Develop the conclusion
Return to your introduction and conclude the thought
Proofread and edit!
WAYS TO APPROACH:
Rhetorical Appeals/Triangle

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
Logos
Pathos
Ethos
Reader
Writer
Text
WAYS TO APPROACH:
Rhetorical Situations

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Purpose/Occasion
Audience
Genre/Medium/Design
Stance/Attitude/Tone
WAYS TO APPROACH:
Rhetorical Devices—
See vocabulary for a more complete list
 Diction
Connotation
Denotation
 Syntax
 Analogy
 Antithesis
WAYS TO APPROACH:
Classical Argument
Classical arguments derive from Greek
and Roman philosophers and include
three types of appeals: emotional
appeal, or pathos—appeal to the
emotions of the audience; logical
appeal, or logos—appeal to reason; and
ethical appeal, or ethos—the character
or expertise of the speaker.
WAYS TO APPROACH:
Contemporary Argument
Contemporary arguments may
employ strategies and appeals
beyond the three that characterize
classical argument.
These may include, but are not
limited to, argument by definition,
induction, inference, and analogy.
WAYS TO APPROACH:
Argument Building
TERMINOLOGY to KNOW:
IN Groups
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Analogy
Antithesis
Appeal to Authority
Assertion/Claim
Challenge

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Refute
Dispute
Fallacy
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Generalization
Position
Qualify
Rebuttal
Rhetoric
Support
Two main types of arguments



Deductive:
A deductive argument is an argument such that
the premises provide (or appear to provide)
complete support for the conclusion.
A good deductive argument is known as a valid
argument and is such that if all its premises are
true, then its conclusion must be true. If all the
argument is valid and actually has all true
premises, then it is known as a sound argument.
WAYS TO APPROACH:
Two main types of arguments


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Inductive:
An inductive argument is an argument such that
the premises provide (or appear to provide)
some degree of support (but less than complete
support) for the conclusion.
A good inductive argument is known as a strong
(or "cogent") inductive argument. It is such that
if the premises are true, the conclusion is likely
to be true.
Deductive Reasoning/Logic
Deductive Reasoning
SYLLOGISM

Major Premise: All dogs are brown.

Minor Premise: My poodle Toby is a dog.

Conclusion: Therefore, Toby is brown.
Deductive Reasoning
SYLLOGISM

Major Premise: Tyrannical rulers deserve no loyalty.

Minor Premise: Saddam Hussein was a tyrannical ruler.

Conclusion: Therefore, Hussein deserved no loyalty.
Inductive Reasoning/Logic
Inductive Reasoning/Logic


Reasoning involves making a generalization
based on numerous facts.
Generalization: a general statement, idea, or
principle.
THE AP ARGUMENT ESSAY

AP ARGUMENT
Prompt:
Defend
Challenge/Refute/Dispute
Qualify
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SOURCES: Current events, high school issues,
journals, letters, essays, speeches, autobiographies,
advertisements, quotes from literature (prose, poetry,
plays), graphs, charts, advertisements....
THE AP ARGUMENT ESSAY
Three “Types” of Argument Questions
Typically, we speak of three “types” of argument questions: those of fact, of value, and of policy.
Arguments of fact state that something is or is not the case. Causal arguments say that one event or
condition leads to another or is likely to. For example, we might argue that AP students do better
in college, that computers enhance learning in the classroom, that the media is responsible for the
shortening of the attention span, or that mercury in the food chain or cigarette smoke in the air
causes cancer.
Arguments of value state that something is or is not desirable. They involve evaluations of quality or
worth according to accepted criteria. For example, one might assert that this or that novel or film
is of significant merit, that preemptive war is or is not a justifiable practice, that Bill Clinton was
or was not a good president, that health concerns take precedence over profit.
Arguments of policy state that something should or should not be done. They make
recommendations for practice or implementation. For example, that the minimum wage should
be increased, that stem cell research should be funded, that Huck Finn should or should not be
part of the curriculum, that gay marriage should or should not be legalized, that more students
should have access to AP, that the designated hitter should be eliminated from baseball (one of
the finest arguments I saw at the 2004 AP English Language Reading, by the way), or that
smoking should be banned from public places. This kind of argument will naturally contain
components—often included as support—of those of fact and value, as my final example in each
category illustrates.
THE AP ARGUMENT ESSAY
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1-3 minutes reading and working the prompt
3 minutes deciding on a position
10-12 minutes planning the support of your
position
20 minutes writing the essay
3 minutes proofreading
ARGUMENT UNIT
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Look at Practice Topics
Build Argument knowledge base
Practice AP Argument Essays (3 Essays)
Write Précis (3)
Read from Files, Text, Internet, and 5 Steps
Move toward Synthesis Writing (2 Essays)