Political Thinking
POL 161
Erik Rankin
D&B- 97-109
Adam Smith – Wealth of Nations
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Discussion of the division of labor
Humans have a natural disposition towards trade
or commerce
No other race of animal seems to have the ability
to barter and trade
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Ex: The dog
Animals have to resort to begging to get their
desires fulfilled
Man has the ability to offer another man something
in exchange for services or goods
Adam Smith – Wealth of Nations
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"It is not from the benevolence of the butcher the
brewer, or the baker that we expect our dinner, but
from their regard to their own interest."
- The Wealth of Nations
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Man instinctively becomes a specialist
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The maker of bows and arrows, a trade that grows into
his chief business to acquire all other things
Man takes all surplus for his trade and enters into
the marketplace
Man choice of profession is usually due in part to
his habits, customs, and education
Adam Smith – Wealth of Nations
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People are quite similar for the first 6 to 8 years of their
lives
After that they begin to exhibit differences
These differences lead to their professions that will allow
them to trade and barter
Without trade and barter a person will be required to
acquire all that they desire on their own
Return to the dogs: Mastiff, Greyhound, Spaniel,
Shepard’s dog
All in all animals cannot rely on each other to make life
more convenient where as humans divide their labor for
the benefit of all
Freedom and EnlightenmentImmanuel Kant
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According to Immanuel Kant, enlightenment is
when a person grows out of his self-imposed
immaturity (this might be on a quiz later!)
He defines immaturity as one’s inability to use his
own understanding without the guidance of another
He says that people impose immaturity on
themselves because they fear the use of their own
understanding without someone else’s help
Furthermore he adds that laziness and cowardice
cause people to gladly remain immature for life
Because of these qualities, he says that others may
easily establish themselves as the guardians or
authorities on certain subjects.
Freedom and EnlightenmentImmanuel Kant
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He gives the following examples of guardians, “a
book to serve as my understanding, a pastor to
serve as my conscience, a physician to determine
my diet for me, and so on.”
He says that guardians will often warn you of
dangers you could encounter should you attempt
not to use their aid
They tell the people whom they guard that the step
to maturity is very dangerous and difficult.
Kant says that this frightens people from making
attempts towards maturity.
Freedom and EnlightenmentImmanuel Kant
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Kant states that it is often difficult for people to emerge
from immaturity.
He says that people would often remain content in a
state of immaturity.
According to him, rules and formulas bind people to a
state of immaturity.
A person who would dare to defy the rules and
formulas would only be taking a small step towards
maturity because he is unaccustomed to this kind of
free movement
Only a few people, according to Kant, have succeeded
in emerging from immaturity.
He says that such people have done so by cultivating
their minds.
Freedom and EnlightenmentImmanuel Kant
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Kant says that the only thing required for
enlightenment is freedom, namely the freedom to
publicly use reason.
By public use of reason he means, a scholar's use
of reason before the entire literate world
He says that this public use of reason alone can
bring about enlightenment among people.
Private reason, he points out, may be narrowly
restricted as long as it does not hinder the
enlightening process.
Freedom and EnlightenmentImmanuel Kant
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Thus, freedom is essential for enlightenment
People must be able to express their
thoughts
By spreading ideas and information, people
will be able to be their own guardians
because they will have all the things
necessary to do so
By allowing freedom of thought, people will
spread ideas which will urge others to think
for themselves
Liberty and Individuality- John
Stuart Mill
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Mill with what he calls "the object of his essay."
He writes that he will argue that the only time individuals or
society as a whole can interfere with individual liberty is for
self-protection
Mill states that the argument that a certain law or public
opinion might be for an individual's own good or welfare does
not suffice to justify that law or public opinion as a coercive
force
coercion by the many toward the individual is only acceptable
when an individual poses a threat to others
It is fine to argue with a person about his actions, but not to
compel him.
Mill writes, "Over himself, over his own body and mind,
the individual is sovereign."
Liberty and Individuality- John
Stuart Mill
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Mill notes that the right of liberty does not
apply to children, or to "backward" societies
It is only when people are capable of learning
from discussion that liberty holds; otherwise
the people must be taken care of
Mill also notes that he is not justifying the claim
of liberty as an abstract right
Rather, he is grounding it in utility, on the
permanent interests of mankind.
Liberty and Individuality- John
Stuart Mill
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Mill writes that if a person causes harm to
others actively or inactively, it is appropriate for
society to condemn him legally or through
general disapprobation
Individuals can even be compelled to do good
for other people, such as to save someone's
life, because to do otherwise would be to cause
evil to another person
In contrast, society only has an indirect interest
in what a person does to himself or to other
freely consenting people.
Liberty and Individuality- John
Stuart Mill
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Mill divides the appropriate sphere of human
liberty falls into three categories, claiming that
any free society must respect all three
First, there is the domain of the conscience,
and liberty of individual thought and opinion
Second, there is planning one's own life, and
the liberty of tastes and pursuits.
Liberty and Individuality- John
Stuart Mill
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Third, there is the liberty to unite with other
consenting individuals for any purpose that does
not harm others
These liberties reflect the idea that true freedom
means pursuing one's own good in one's own way,
as long as it does not prevent others from doing
the same
These ideas directly contradict society's increasing
tendency to demand conformity, and unless moral
conviction turns against this tendency, the demand
for conformity will only increase.
Liberty and Individuality- John
Stuart Mill
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Mill turns to the issue of whether people, either through
their government or on their own, should be allowed to
coerce or limit anyone else's expression of opinion
Mill emphatically says that such actions are illegitimate
Even if only one person held a particular opinion,
mankind would not be justified in silencing him
Silencing these opinions, Mill says, is wrong because it
robs "the human race, posterity as well as the existing
generation."
In particular, it robs those who disagree with these
silenced opinions.
Liberty and Individuality- John
Stuart Mill
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Mill then turns to the reasons why humanity is hurt
by silencing opinions.
His first argument is that the suppressed opinion
may be true.
He writes that since human beings are not
infallible, they have no authority to decide an issue
for all people, and to keep others from coming up
with their own judgments..
Liberty and Individuality- John
Stuart Mill
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Mill asserts that the reason why liberty of
opinion is so often in danger is that in practice
people tend to be confident in their own
rightness, and excluding that, in the infallibility of
the world they come in contact with.
Mill contends that such confidence is not
justified, and that all people are hurt by silencing
potentially true ideas
After presenting his first argument, Mill looks at
possible criticisms of his reasoning and
responds to them.
Journal Entry
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React to Mill’s assertion, "Over himself, over
his own body and mind, the individual is
sovereign."
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Discuss the 3 categories in Mill’s sphere of
human liberties. Does he miss anything?
Is lying ever justified? If so, when and why?