Perspectives of Ethics
Ethical Formalism


Absolute rules about what is good and about a
person's duty behave in a certain manner
“It is right because God said so.”

Ex. Genesis 22, Abraham's readiness to kill Isaac

Absolutist theory

Immanuel Kant – founder


Based on the idea that people investigate principles
of conduct, norms of behavior, and specific rules (or
laws) for human interactions
Involve absolute duties to behave in certain ways
under all circumstances
Kant's Theory of Duty



The morally good is determined by the intention
that lies that lies beneath the action
The moral worth of an act comes from the
nature of its motivation and not from what the
act bring about
Absolute Principle/ Categorical Imperative

Basis of ethical codes
Categorical Imperative

Tests the moral validity of an action

Applies universally to all situations (categorical)



Force of a law of reason and not optional
(imperative)
“Act only on that maxim which you can at the
same time will to be a universal law”
Absolute Duties
Read:
The Nuremerg Trials, p. 81
Strenghts of Absolute Rule Application




It ensures equal treatment of people similarly
situated
It develops a respect for the law and for law
appliers
It limits the impact of personal prejudice
It makes the law understandable, consistent
and fair
Drawbacks of Absolute Rule Application

It allows majorities to persecute minorities

It does not promote good in people's lives


It can inhibit “justice” by not properly
discriminating between people
It says nothing about how to “see” a situation, to
recognize the moral significance of a situation
Utilitarianism
“The utilitarian doctrine asserts that we should
always act so as to produce the greatest possible
ratio of good to evil for everyone concerned.”
--John Stuart Mill, Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism




Developed by Jeremy Bentham and later by
John Stuart Mill
The sole, ultimate standard of right and wrong
is the principle of utility
The criterion to be considered is the
consequences a choice would bring to the world
In making ethical choices, one must analyze the
comparative amount of good produced by an
act or the comparative balance of good or evil it
produces
In deciding ethical questions, utilitarians believe
that a calculation mus be made regarding which
choice would maximize the good of the greatest
number of people.
Double Principle of Utility
•
To maximize the balance between good and
evil
•
To distribute this as widely as possible
Read:
The Limits of Absolute Idea, p. 88
“Greatest happiness
for the greatest number of people”
2 Kinds of Utilitarianism
•
Rule Utilitarianism
–
•
Happiness of majority
Act Utilitarianism
–
Happiness of individual
Problems of Utilitarianism
•
It is difficult to “calculate” amounts of good and
evil
•
Merely being good for the majority does not
necessarily make an act moral—it ignores the
rights of minorities and of individual citizens
•
There is no basis for choosing between equal
amounts of good and evil
•
In deterring crime, it does not matter who is
punished—the guilty or the innocent
Kant vs. Mill
•
Consistency is one's •
maxim where
circumstances are
ignored
•
Reason is the most
silent feature of
morality
•
Taking situations
into account when
deciding what is
right
Calculating what is
would produce the
greatest good for
the greatest number
of people
Kant vs. Mill (cont.)
•
Focusing on the
will/intention behind
an act: Kant
succeeds in taking
people more
seriously than Mill
•
Focusing on the
consequences; right
acts are those
which, in their
application, promote
good over evil, and ,
thus, Mill takes the
good more seriously
than Kant
Principle of Beneficience
The obligation to do good and to prevent harm.
Implications of the
Principle of Beneficience
•
One ought not to inflict evil or harm
•
One ought to prevent evil or harm
•
One ought to remove evil
•
One ought to do or promote good
Principle of Distributive Justice
•
Fairness
•
We ought to make the same relative
contribution to the goodness of the lives of
others
Theories of Distributive Justice
•
Merit (Western Liberalism)
–
•
Equality (Modern Democratic Theory)
–
•
People should receive exactly equal amounts
Socialism (Marxist)
–
•
People should receive according to their relative
merits
People should receive according to their needs
Virtue (Platonic, The Republic, Book 1,
“what each is due”)
–
People should receive according to their goodness