Table of Contents
Organic Compounds
Section 1 • Simple Organic Compounds
Section 2 • Substituted Hydrocarbons
Section 3 • Petroleum—A Source of Organic
Compounds
Section 4 • Biological Compounds
Section
1
Simple Organic Compounds
Organic Compounds
• Most compounds containing the element carbon are
organic compounds.
• The others, including carbon dioxide and the carbonates,
are considered inorganic.
Section
1
Simple Organic Compounds
Bonding
• You may wonder why carbon can form so many
organic compounds.
• The main reason is that a carbon
atom has four electrons in its outer
energy level.
• This means that each carbon atom
can form four covalent bonds with
atoms of carbon or with other
elements.
Section
1
Simple Organic Compounds
Bonding
• A covalent bond is formed when two atoms share a
pair of electrons.
• This large number of bonds allows carbon to form
many types of compounds ranging from small
compounds to complex compounds.
• It also can form double and triple bonds as well as
single bonds.
Section
1
Simple Organic Compounds
Arrangement
• Another reason carbon can form so many compounds
is that carbon can link together with other carbon atoms
in many different arrangements—chains, branched
chains, and even rings.
Section
1
Simple Organic Compounds
Representing Organic Compounds
• There are many ways to represent organic compounds.
• Three common ways are the chemical formula, the
structural formula, and the space-filling model.
• For example, methane can be represented by its
chemical formula CH4.
Section
1
Simple Organic Compounds
Representations
• Methane can be represented in two other ways.
• The structural formula uses
lines to show that four
hydrogen atoms are bonded
to one carbon atom in a
methane molecule.
Section
1
Simple Organic Compounds
Representations
• The second way, the
space-filling model,
shows a more realistic
picture of the relative
size and arrangement of
the atoms in the
molecule.
Section
1
Simple Organic Compounds
Hydrocarbons
• Methane is a main component of natural gas and is a
hydrocarbon.
• A compound made up of only carbon and hydrogen
atoms is called a hydrocarbon.
• Methane and other hydrocarbons produce more than 90
percent of the energy humans use.
Section
1
Simple Organic Compounds
Hydrocarbons
• Another hydrocarbon used as fuel is propane.
• Propane's structural formula and space-filling model are
shown.
Section
1
Simple Organic Compounds
Hydrocarbon Lengths
• Hydrocarbon chains come in
many lengths.
• The root of the hydrocarbon’s
name tells you how many
carbon atoms are in the chain.
• This table lists the roots for
some hydrocarbons.
Section
1
Simple Organic Compounds
Hydrocarbon Lengths
• This figure shows a graph of the boiling points of some
hydrocarbons.
• Notice the
relationship
between boiling
points and the
addition of
carbon atoms.
Section
1
Simple Organic Compounds
Bonding in Hydrocarbons
• An easy way to remember what type of bond a
hydrocarbon has is to look at the last three letters.
• Compounds ending with -ane have a single bond; the
ending -ene indicates a double bond, and -yne indicates
a triple bond.
Section
1
Simple Organic Compounds
Single Bonds
• Hydrocarbons that contain only single bonds are called
saturated hydrocarbons.
• The table lists four saturated hydrocarbons.
• Notice how each carbon atom appears to be a link in a
chain connected by single covalent bonds.
Section
1
Simple Organic Compounds
Multiple Bonds
• Hydrocarbons, such as ethene and ethyne, that contain
at least one double or triple bond are called
unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Section
1
Simple Organic Compounds
Multiple Bonds
• Ethylene is another name for the hydrocarbon ethene,
(C2H4).
• This contains one double bone in which two carbon
atoms share two pairs of electrons.
• The hydrocarbon ethyne (C2H2) contains a triple bond
in which three pairs of electrons are shared.
Section
1
Simple Organic Compounds
Structural Isomers
• The chemical formula of pentane is C5H12.
• Two other hydrocarbon called isopentane and
neopentane have exactly the same chemical formula.
• How can this be?
Section
1
Simple Organic Compounds
Structural Isomers
• The answer lies in the
arrangement of the five
carbon atoms.
• In a molecule of pentane,
the carbon atoms form a
continuous chain.
Section
1
Simple Organic Compounds
Structural Isomers
• The carbon chain of
iospentane has one branch
and the chain of
neopentane has two
branches.
Section
1
Simple Organic Compounds
Structural Isomers
• Pentane, isopentane, and neopentane are isomers.
• Isomers are compounds that have identical chemical
formulas but different molecular structures and shapes.
Click image to play movie
Section
1
Simple Organic Compounds
Properties of Isomers
• The arrangement of carbon atoms in each compound
changes the shape of the molecule, and very often
affects its physical properties.
• Generally, melting points and boiling points are
lowered as the amount of branching in an isomer
increases.
Section
1
Simple Organic Compounds
Properties of Isomers
• You can see this pattern in the table.
Section
1
Simple Organic Compounds
Properties of Isomers
• You may have noticed that the melting point of
neopentane does not follow the general trend.
• Its higher melting point is due to its symmetry and
globular shape.
Section
1
Simple Organic Compounds
Other Isomers
• There are many other kinds of isomers.
• In unsaturated hydrocarbons, the
double and triple bonds can be
located in different places in a
carbon chain.
• For example, in this butene
isomer (called 1-butene), the
double bond is between the first
and second carbon atoms.
Section
1
Simple Organic Compounds
Other Isomers
• In these butene isomers, the double bond is between
the second and third carbons.
• Notice that there are two ways that the chain can bend
when the double bond is in this location.
Section
1
Simple Organic Compounds
Other Isomers
• Some isomers differ only slightly in how their atoms are
arranged in space.
• Such isomers form what is often called right- and lefthanded molecules, like mirror images.
• Two such isomers may have nearly identical physical
and chemical properties.
Section
1
Simple Organic Compounds
Carbon Rings
• Carbon chains can also form rings. These rings are often
referred to as cyclic compounds
• Carbon rings are indicated by the prefix cyclo-, which
means circular.
• Three cyclic compounds cyclopropane, cyclopentene,
and cycloctyne are shown here.
Section
1
Simple Organic Compounds
Benzene
• Look at a model of benzene, C6H6, and its
structural formula.
• As you can see, the
benzene molecule has six
carbon atoms bonded into a
ring with alternating double
and single bonds.
Section
1
Simple Organic Compounds
Benzene
• The electrons shown as alternating double and
single bonds that form the ring are shared by all
six carbon atoms in the ring.
Section
1
Simple Organic Compounds
Benzene
• This equal sharing of electrons is represented by the
special benzene symbol—a circle in a hexagon.
• Many compounds contain this
stable ring structure.
• The stable ring acts as a
framework upon which new
molecules can be built.
Section
1
Simple Organic Compounds
Fused Rings
• Benzene rings sometimes fuse together.
• One type of moth
crystal is made of
naphthalene (NAF thuh
leen), which is two
fused benzene rings.
Section
1
Simple Organic Compounds
Fused Rings
• Many known compounds contain three or more rings
fused together.
• Tetracycline (teh truh SI kleen) antibiotics are based on
a fused ring system containing four fused rings.
Section
1
Section Check
Question 1
What element must a compound contain in order to be
considered an organic compound?
A. carbon
B. nitrogen
C. oxygen
D. hydrogen
Section
1
Section Check
Answer
The answer is A. Most compounds containing carbon are
organic compounds.
Section
1
Section Check
Question 2
Which is a hydrocarbon?
A. propane
B. ethanol
C. acetic acid
D. mercaptan
Section
1
Section Check
Answer
Propane is a hydrocarbon, made up of only carbon and
hydrogen atoms.
Section
1
Section Check
Question 3
Hydrocarbons containing only single-bonded carbon
atoms are called __________.
Section
1
Section Check
Answer
They are called saturated hydrocarbons. “Saturated” in this
term means the compound holds as many hydrogen atoms
as possible.
Section
2
Substituted Hydrocarbons
Substituted Hydrocarbons
• A substituted hydrocarbon has one or more of its
hydrogen atoms replaced by atoms or groups of other
elements.
• The group of atoms inserted are called functional
groups.
• Depending on what properties are needed, chemists
decide what to add.
Section
2
Substituted Hydrocarbons
Substituting Oxygen Groups
• Oxygen is found in many substituted hydrocarbons.
• Oxygen can form single and double bonds with carbon,
and single bonds with hydrogen.
• Alcohols, organic acids, and esters have functional
groups that contain oxygen.
Section
2
Substituted Hydrocarbons
Alcohols and Acids
• An alcohol is formed when –OH groups replace one or
more hydrogen atoms in a hydrocarbon.
• Organic acids form when a
carboxyl group, –COOH, is
substituted for one of the
hydrogen atoms attached to a
carbon atom.
Section
2
Substituted Hydrocarbons
Alcohols
• Rubbing alcohol is a substituted hydrocarbon.
• Alcohols are an important group of organic compounds.
• They serve often as solvents and disinfectants, and
more importantly can be used as pieces to assemble
larger molecules.
Section
2
Substituted Hydrocarbons
Organic Acids
• The structures of ethane, ethanol, and ethanoic acid
are similar.
• Do you see that ethanoic acid,
found in vinegar, is substituted
hydrocarbon?
Section
2
Substituted Hydrocarbons
Esters
• Mixing an acid and a base will yield water and a salt.
• Similarly, mixed an alcohol and an organic acid will
yield water and an ester.
• Substituted hydrocarbons that contain a –COOC group
are called esters.
Section
2
Substituted Hydrocarbons
Esters
• Esters of the alcohol glycerine are used commercially
to make soaps.
• Other esters are used widely in flavors and perfumes,
and still others can be transformed into fibers to make
clothing.
Section
2
Substituted Hydrocarbons
Esters for Flavor
• Many fruit-flavored soft drinks and desserts taste like the
real fruit.
• If you look at the label though, you might be surprised to
find that no fruit was usedonly artificial flavor.
• Most likely this artificial flavor contains some esters.
Section
2
Substituted Hydrocarbons
Esters for Flavor
• Although natural and
artificial flavors often
contain a blend of many
esters, the odor of some
individual esters
immediately makes you
think of particular fruits
as shown.
Section
2
Substituted Hydrocarbons
Amines
• Amines are substituted hydrocarbons that have –SH
group replacing a hydrogen atom.
• Aniline is an amine that is used to make dyes.
• Amines are also essential for life.
Section
2
Substituted Hydrocarbons
Mercaptans
• When a –SH group replaces a hydrogen atom, the
resulting compound is called a thiol, or more commonly
a mercaptan.
• Most mercaptans have unpleasant odors. This can be
useful to animals like the skunk.
Section
2
Substituted Hydrocarbons
Mercaptans
• Though you might not think so, such a powerful stink
can be an asset, and not just for skunks.
• In fact, smelly mercaptans can save lives.
• Natural gas has no odor, so gas companies add small
amounts of mercaptans so the people can detect gas
leaks.
Section
2
Substituted Hydrocarbons
Mercaptans
• Small amounts of some
mercaptans, however, can
produce pleasant smells.
• For example, the grapefruit
mercaptan give grapefruit its
distinct smell and flavor.
Section
2
Substituted Hydrocarbons
Halocarbons
• When four chlorine atoms
replace four hydrogen atoms
in ethylene, the result is
tetrachloroethene (the truh
klor uh eth EEN).
Section
2
Substituted Hydrocarbons
Substituting Other Elements
• Adding four fluorine atoms to ethylene makes a
compound that can be transformed into a black, shiny
material used for nonstick surfaces in cookware.
• When one or more hydrogen atoms are replaced with a
halogen, such as chlorine or fluorine, the result is a
halocarbon.
Section
2
Substituted Hydrocarbons
Aromatic Compounds
• Chewing flavored gum or dissolving a candy mint
in your mouth releases pleasant flavors and
aromas.
• Many chemical compounds produce pleasant
odors but others have less pleasant flavors and
smells.
Section
2
Substituted Hydrocarbons
Aromatic Compounds
• Smell is not what makes a compound aromatic in
the chemical sense.
• To a chemist, an aromatic
compound is one that
contains a benzene
structure.
Section
2
Section Check
Question 1
What is an aromatic compound?
Section
2
Section Check
Answer
In the chemical sense, an aromatic compound is one that
contains a benzene structure having a ring with six
carbons.
Section
Section Check
2
Question 2
A –NH2 group takes the place of a hydrogen atom in a (n)
__________.
A.
B.
C.
D.
ester
halocarbon
mercaptan
amine
Section
2
Section Check
Answer
The answer is D. Amines contain a –NH2 group.
Section
2
Section Check
Question 3
If a hydroxyl (-OH) group replaces a hydrogen atom in a
hydrocarbon, what type of compound results?
Section
Section Check
2
Answer
An alcohol is formed when
-OH groups replace one or
more hydrogen atoms in a
hydrocarbon.
Section
3
Petroleum—A Source of Organic Compounds
What is petroleum?
• What is petroleum?
• Do you carry a comb in your pocket or purse? What is
it made from?
Section
3
Petroleum—A Source of Organic Compounds
What is petroleum?
• Petroleum is a fossil fuel that is a mixture of thousands
of carbon compounds.
• The liquid part of petroleum is called crude oil.
• Crude oil is dark, flammable, and foul-smelling.
Section
3
Petroleum—A Source of Organic Compounds
Processing Crude Oil
• To make items such as
combs, the first step is to
extract the crude oil from
its underground source.
Section
3
Petroleum—A Source of Organic Compounds
Processing Crude Oil
• Then, chemists and engineers separate the crude oil
into fractions containing compounds with similar
boiling points.
• The separation process is known as fractional
distillation.
Section
3
Petroleum—A Source of Organic Compounds
What is petroleum?
• If you have ever driven past a refinery, you may have
seen big, metal towers called fractionating towers.
• They often rise as high as 35 m and can be 18 m wide
and have pipes and metal scaffolding attached to the
outside.
Section
3
Petroleum—A Source of Organic Compounds
The Tower
• Inside the tower is a series of metal plates arranged
like the floors of a building.
• These plates have small holes so that vapors can pass
through.
Section
3
Petroleum—A Source of Organic Compounds
The Tower
• The tower separates crude
oil into fractions containing
compounds having a range
of boiling points.
• Within a fraction, boiling
points may range more
than 100C.
Section
3
Petroleum—A Source of Organic Compounds
Separating Fractions
• The crude petroleum at the base of the tower is heated
to more than 350C.
• At this temperature most hydrocarbons in the mixture
become vapor and start to rise.
Section
3
Petroleum—A Source of Organic Compounds
Separating Fractions
• The higher boiling fractions reach only the lower plates
before they condense, forming shallow pools that drain
off through pipes on the sides of the tower and are
collected.
• Fractions with lower boiling points may climb higher to
the middle plates before condensing.
Section
3
Petroleum—A Source of Organic Compounds
Separating Fractions
• Finally, those with the
lowest boiling points
condense on the top
most plates or never
condense at all and are
collected as gasses at
the top of the tower.
Section
3
Petroleum—A Source of Organic Compounds
Separating Fractions
• Why don’t the condensed liquids fall back through the
holes?
• The reason is that pressure from the rising vapors
prevents this.
• The separation of the fractions is improved by the
interaction of rising vapors with condensed liquid.
Section
3
Petroleum—A Source of Organic Compounds
Uses for Petroleum Compounds
• The fractions that condense on
the upper plates and contain
from five to ten carbons are
used for gasoline and solvents.
Section
3
Petroleum—A Source of Organic Compounds
Uses for Petroleum Compounds
• Below these are fractions with
12 to 18 carbons that are used
for kerosene and jet fuel.
• The bottom fractions go into
lubricating oil, and the residue is
used for paving asphalt.
Section
3
Petroleum—A Source of Organic Compounds
Other Petroleum Products
• Aromatic dyes from petroleum have replaced natural
dyes, such as indigo and alizarin, almost completely.
• The first synthetic dye was a bright purple called
mauve that was discovered accidentally in coal tar
compounds.
Section
3
Petroleum—A Source of Organic Compounds
Polymers
• Did you ever loop together strips of paper to make
paper chains for decorations?
• A paper chain can represent the structure of a
polymer.
• Some of the smaller molecules from petroleum
can act like links in a chain.
Section
3
Petroleum—A Source of Organic Compounds
Polymers
• Long chains of monomers are called polymers.
• The small molecule, which can combine with itself
repeatedly to form long chain, is called a monomer.
• Often two or more different monomers, known as
copolymers, combine to make one polymer molecule.
Section
3
Petroleum—A Source of Organic Compounds
Polymer Properties
• Polymers can be made light and flexible or so strong
that they can be used to make plastic pipes, boats,
and even some auto bodies.
• Because so many things used today are made of
synthetic polymers, some people call this "The Age of
Plastics."
Section
3
Petroleum—A Source of Organic Compounds
Polymer Properties
• The properties of polymers depend mostly on which
monomers are used to make them.
• Like hydrocarbons, polymers can have branches in
their chains.
• The amount of branching and the shape of the
polymer greatly affects its properties.
Section
3
Petroleum—A Source of Organic Compounds
Polymer Properties
• Other polymers can be spun into threads, which are
used to make clothing or items such as suitcases and
backpacks.
• Bulletproof vests are made of tightly woven, synthetic
polymer.
• Some polymers remain rigid when heated, but others
become soft and pliable when heated and harden
again when cooled.
Section
3
Petroleum—A Source of Organic Compounds
Hydrocarbon Polymers
• Some polymers are made from only carbon and
hydrogen.
• One common polymer or plastic is made from the
monomer ethene or ethylene.
• Under standard room-temperature conditions, this
small hydrocarbon is a gas.
• However, when ethylene combines with itself
repeatedly, it forms a polymer called polyethylene.
Section
3
Petroleum—A Source of Organic Compounds
Common Polymers
• However, when ethylene combines with itself
repeatedly it forms a polymer called polyethylene.
• Polyethylene (pah lee EH thuh leen) is used widely in
shopping bags and plastic bottles.
Section
3
Petroleum—A Source of Organic Compounds
Hydrocarbon Polymers
• Polypropylene is a hydrocarbon polymer made from
propene monomers.
• Polypropylene is used to make glues, carpets, and
high-performance outdoor clothing.
Section
3
Petroleum—A Source of Organic Compounds
Hydrocarbon Polymers
• Sometimes the same polymer can take two completely
different forms.
• For example, polystyrene (pah lee STI reen) that is
made from styrene, forms brittle, transparent cases
for CDs and lightweight, opaque foam cups and
packing materials.
Section
3
Petroleum—A Source of Organic Compounds
Substituted Hydrocarbon Polymers
• Polymers can contain elements besides carbon and
hydrogen.
• For example, polyurethane contains carbon, hydrogen,
nitrogen, and oxygen.
• Polyurethane is used to make synthetic sponges, foam,
waterproof coatings, and shoe parts.
Section
3
Petroleum—A Source of Organic Compounds
Substituted Hydrocarbon Polymers
• Another substituted hydrocarbon polymer is polyvinyl
chloride (PVC).
• In PVC, some of the hydrogen atoms are replaced with
chlorine atoms.
• PVC is used to make plastic pipes, house siding, and
hoses.
Section
3
Petroleum—A Source of Organic Compounds
Polyesters
• Synthetic fibers known as polyesters are polymers; that
is, they are chains containing many or poly esters.
• They are made from an organic acid that has two –
COOH groups and an alcohol that has two –OH
groups, as shown.
Section
3
Petroleum—A Source of Organic Compounds
Polyesters
• Many varieties of polyesters can be made, depending
on what alcohols and acids are used.
• Polyesters are often used to make fabrics that are
durable, water-repellant, colorfast, and do not wrinkle
easily.
Section
3
Petroleum—A Source of Organic Compounds
Hydrocarbon Polymers
• To make this transformation, a gas such as carbon
dioxide is blown into melted polystyrene as it is molded.
• Bubbles remain within the polymer when it cools,
making polystyrene foam an efficient insulator.
Section
3
Petroleum—A Source of Organic Compounds
Depolymerization
• Many polymers do not decompose.
• One way to combat
this is by recycling,
which recovers clean
plastics for reuse in
new products.
Section
3
Petroleum—A Source of Organic Compounds
Depolymerization
• Another approach involves a process called
depolymerization, which uses heat or chemicals to
break the long polymer chain into its monomer
fragments.
• These monomers can then be reused.
• Each polymer requires a different process, and much
research is needed to make this type of recycling
economical.
Section
Section Check
3
Question 1
Petroleum is a mixture of thousands of __________
compounds.
A. iron
B. hydrogen
C. carbon
D. nitrogen
Section
3
Section Check
Answer
The answer is C. Petroleum contains the flammable
liquid called crude oil.
Section
Section Check
3
Question 2
What process is used to separate crude oil into
useable compounds?
Section
3
Section Check
Answer
Fractional distillation is used to separate crude oil into
fractions containing compounds with similar boiling
points. This process takes place in petroleum refineries.
Section
3
Section Check
Question 3
Which is not obtained from petroleum?
A. propane
B. gasoline
C. paving asphalt
D. glycogen
Section
3
Section Check
Answer
The answer is D. Glycogen is a glucose polymer that
stores energy from starch in the liver and muscles.
Section
4
Biological Compounds
Biological Polymers
• Biological polymers are made of many smaller
monomers that are linked together.
• Many of the important biological compounds in your
body are polymers.
• Among them are the proteins, which often contain
hundreds of units.
• The monomers of biological polymers are usually
larger and more complex in structure than other
monomers.
Section
4
Biological Compounds
Proteins
• Proteins are large organic polymers formed from
organic monomers called amino acids.
• Even though only 20 amino acids are commonly
found in nature, they can be arranged in so many
ways that millions of different proteins exist.
Section
4
Biological Compounds
Proteins
• Proteins come in numerous forms and make up many
of the tissues in your body, such as muscles and
tendons, as well as your hair and fingernails.
• In fact, proteins account for 15 percent of your total
body weight.
Section
4
Biological Compounds
Protein Monomers
• Amino acids, such as glycine and cysteine, has an
amine group (-NH2) and a carboxylic acid group
(-COOH).
• Amine groups of one amino acid can combine with the
carboxylic acid group of another amino acid, linking
them together to form a compound called a peptide.
Section
4
Biological Compounds
Protein Monomers
• The bond joining them is known as peptide bond.
• When a peptide contains a
large number of amino
acids—about 50 or more—
the molecule is called a
protein.
Section
4
Biological Compounds
Protein Structure
• Long protein molecules tend to twist and coil in a
manner unique to each protein.
• For example,
hemoglobin, which
carries oxygen in your
blood, has four chains
that coil around each
other.
Section
4
Biological Compounds
Protein Structure
• Each chain contains an iron atom that carries the
oxygen.
• If you look closely, you
can see all four iron
atoms in hemoglobin.
Section
4
Biological Compounds
Protein Structure
• When you eat foods that contain proteins, your
body breaks down the proteins into their amino
acid monomers.
• Then your body uses these amino acids to make
new proteins that form muscles, blood, and other
body tissues.
Section
4
Biological Compounds
Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates are compounds containing carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen, which have twice as many
hydrogen atoms as oxygen atoms.
• Carbohydrates include the sugars and starches.
Section
4
Biological Compounds
Sugars
• Sugars are a major group
of carbohydrates.
• The sugar glucose is
found in your blood and
also in many sweet foods
such as grapes and
honey.
Section
4
Biological Compounds
Sugars
• Common table sugar, known as sucrose, is broken
down by digestion into two simpler sugars—
fructose, often called fruit sugar, and glucose.
• Unlike starches,
sugars provide
quick energy soon
after eating.
Section
4
Biological Compounds
Starches
• Starches are another type of carbohydrate.
• Starches are polymers made of sugar monomers.
• This starch is made of glucose monomers.
Section
4
Biological Compounds
Starches
• The energy from starches can be stored in liver
and muscle cells in the form of a compound called
glycogen.
• During a long race, this stored energy is released,
giving the athlete a fresh burst of power.
Section
Biological Compounds
4
Lipids
• Fats, oils, and related
compounds make up a
group of organic
compounds known as
lipids.
• Lipids contain the same
elements as carbohydrates
but in different proportions.
Section
Biological Compounds
4
Lipids
• Lipids have fewer oxygen
atoms and contain carboxylic
acid groups.
• Fats and oils are similar in
structure to hydrocarbons.
Section
4
Biological Compounds
Fats and Oils
• They can be classified as saturated or unsaturated,
according to the types of bonds in their carbon chains.
• Saturated fats contain only single bonds between
carbon atoms.
• Unsaturated fats having one double bond are
called monounsaturated, and those having two or
more double bonds are called polyunsaturated.
Section
4
Biological Compounds
Fats and Oils
• Animal lipids or fats tend to
be saturated and are solids at
room temperature.
• Plant lipids called oils are
unsaturated and are usually
liquids.
Section
4
Biological Compounds
Fats and Oils
• Evidence shows that too much saturated fat and
cholesterol in the diet may contribute to some
heart disease and that unsaturated fats may help
to prevent heart disease.
• A balanced diet includes some fats, just as it
includes proteins and carbohydrates.
Section
4
Biological Compounds
Nucleic Acids
• A nucleic acid is an organic polymer that controls the
activity and reproduction of cells.
• One kind of nucleic acid, called deoxyribonucleic (dee
AHK sih ri boh noo klah ihk) acid or DNA, is found in
the nuclei of cells where it codes and stores genetic
information.
• This is known as the genetic code.
Section
4
Biological Compounds
Nucleic Acid Monomers
• The monomers that make up DNA are called
nucleotides.
• Nucleotides are complex molecules containing an
organic base, a sugar, and a phosphoric acid unit.
Section
4
Biological Compounds
Nucleic Acid Monomers
• In DNA two nucleotide
chains twist around
each other forming
what resembles a
twisted ladder or what
is called the double
helix.
Section
4
Biological Compounds
Nucleic Acid Monomers
• Human DNA contains only
four different organic bases,
but they can form millions of
combinations.
• The bases on one side of
the ladder pair with bases
on the other side.
Section
4
Biological Compounds
DNA Fingerprinting
• The DNA of each person differs in some way from
that of everyone else, except for identical twins,
who share the same DNA sequence.
• The unique nature of DNA offers crime investigators a
way to identify criminals from hair or fluids left at a
crime scene.
Section
4
Biological Compounds
DNA Fingerprinting
• Chemists can break up the DNA into its nucleotide
components and use radioactive and X-ray methods to
obtain a picture of the nucleotide pattern.
• Comparing this pattern to one made from the DNA of a
suspect can link that suspect to the crime scene.
Section
4
Section Check
Question 1
Proteins are large organic polymers formed from
__________.
A. glucose
B. amino acids
C. carboxylic acids
D. nucleic acids
Section
4
Section Check
Answer
The answer is B,
amino acids. Every
amino acid contains
a carboxylic acid
group, as well as an
amine group.
Section
4
Section Check
Question 2
Which of the following refers specifically to the bond
linking amino acids?
A. ionic
B. covalent
C. metallic
D. peptide
Section
4
Section Check
Answer
The answer is D.
Peptides are
compounds formed
by the linking together
of amino acids
Section
4
Section Check
Question 3
What part of a nucleic acid monomer forms the “rungs” of
a DNA ladder?
Section
4
Section Check
Answer
The four different organic bases in
DNA form hydrogen bonds and
make up the “rungs” of the ladder.
The sugar and phosphate groups
make up the backbone, or sides of
the ladder.
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Chapter Summary
Chapter Review Questions
Standardized Test Practice
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Recycling Bin
THUMBNAILS
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Lipids
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Carbon Square
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Heptane
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Isoprene
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Vanillin
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Methane
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Methane
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Propane Compound
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Saturated Hydrocarbons Table
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Roots for Hydrocarbons Table
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Boiling Point of Hydrocarbons
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Butane Isomers
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Isopentane
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Pentane Isomers Table
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Ethene
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Ethyne
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Aspirin Compound
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Wintergreen Compound
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Benzene
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Benzene Symbol
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Naphthalene
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Ethanol
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Ethanoic acid
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Tetrachloroethene
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Butene Isomers
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Tetrachloroethene
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Structural formulas for different esters
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Aniline
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Grapefruit mercaptan
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Carbon Rings
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Deep Sea Drilling
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Fractionating Tower
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Paper Chain
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Starch
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Glucose
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Sucrose
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Peptide Glycyl Cysteinate
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Hemoglobin
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DNA Model
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Polyesters
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Reviewing Main Ideas
Simple Organic Compounds
• Organic compounds contain carbon. Carbon is an
element with a structure that enables it to form a large
number of compounds.
• Hydrocarbons are made of only hydrogen and carbon.
• Saturated hydrocarbons contain only single bonds
between carbon atoms. Unsaturated hydrocarbons
contain double or triple bonds.
Reviewing Main Ideas
Simple Organic Compounds
• Isomers of organic compounds have identical
formulas but different molecular shapes.
• Benzene rings are stable because electrons are
shared by all six carbon atoms, resulting in a rigid
planar structure.
Reviewing Main Ideas
Substituted hydrocarbons
• In a substituted hydrocarbon, other atoms or groups of
atoms take the place of one or more hydrogen atoms.
• Alcohols contain –OH groups and organic acids
contain –COOH groups.
• Esters contain a –COOC group and are often used for
flavoring.
Reviewing Main Ideas
Substituted hydrocarbons
• Amines contain –NH2 group and mercaptans contain
a –SH group.
• Halocarbons have one or more hydrogen atoms
replaced with a halogen, such as fluorine or chlorine.
• Aromatic compounds, many of which have odors,
contain the benzene ring structure.
Reviewing Main Ideas
Petroleum—A Source of Carbon Compounds
• Petroleum is a mixture of thousands of carbon
compounds.
• A fractionating tower separates petroleum into groups
of compounds or fractions based on their boiling
points.
Reviewing Main Ideas
Petroleum—A Source of Organic Compounds
• Small hydrocarbons obtained from petroleum can
be combined to make long chains called polymers,
which are used for plastics.
• Polymers can be spun into fibers designed to have
specific properties.
Reviewing Main Ideas
Biological Compounds
• Proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids
are major groups of biological organic compounds.
• Many important biological compounds are
polymers, huge organic molecules made of
smaller units, or monomers.
Reviewing Main Ideas
Biological Compounds
• Proteins are polymers made from amino acids.
• Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
They have twice as many hydrogen atoms as oxygen
atoms.
• Lipids also contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but
in different proportions. Lipids include fats, oils, and
cholesterol.
Reviewing Main Ideas
Biological Compounds
• Nucleic acids are made of nucleotide monomers
and control the activities and reproductions of
cells.
• DNA is a nucleic acid found in the nucleus of a
cells that contains the genetic code.
Chapter Review
Question 1
Most carbon-containing compounds are _______.
Answer
More than 90 percent of the millions of carbon
compounds known today are considered organic.
Chapter Review
Question 2
What type of bond is formed when two atoms share a
pair of electrons?
A. ionic
B. covalent
C. metallic
D. acidic
Chapter Review
Answer
The answer is D. A carbon atom
has four electrons in its outer
energy level and can form four
covalent bonds with atoms of
carbon or other elements.
Chapter Review
Question 3
Which has a structural isomer with the chemical
formula C4H10?
A. methane
B. ethane
C. propane
D. butane
Chapter Review
Answer
The answer is D. Butane and
isobutene both have four
carbon and ten hydrogen
atoms.
Chapter Review
Question 4
Hydrocarbons that have hydrogen atoms replaced with
different groups of atoms are called __________.
Chapter Review
Answer
Substituted hydrocarbons
have one or more of their
hydrogen atoms replaced
by atoms or groups of
other elements.
Chapter Review
Question 5
_________ are compounds containing carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen, and include sugars and
starches.
Chapter Review
Answer
These compounds are
called carbohydrates and
have twice as many
hydrogen atoms as oxygen
atoms.
Standardized Test Practice
Question 1
Which is a saturated hydrocarbon?
A.
B.
Standardized Test Practice
C.
D.
Standardized Test Practice
Answer
The answer is C. Isoprene and benzene are
hydrocarbons, but are not saturated. Heptane is the
saturated hydrocarbon, containing only single-bonded
carbon and hydrogen.
Standardized Test Practice
Question 2
How many covalent bonds can a carbon form with other
atoms?
A. one
B. two
C. three
D. four
Standardized Test Practice
Answer
The answer is D. A
carbon atom has four
electrons in its outer
energy level and can
form four covalent
bonds with atoms of
carbon or other
elements.
Standardized Test Practice
Question 3
The hydrocarbon ethyne contains a triple bond in which
_______ pairs of electrons are shared.
A. one
B. two
C. three
D. four
Standardized Test Practice
Answer
The answer is C. Each pair of shared electrons forms a
bond; a triple bond has three pairs of shared electrons
Standardized Test Practice
Question 4
Which physical property is used to separate compounds in
crude oil?
A. Color
B. Boiling point
C. Melting point
D. Density
Standardized Test Practice
Answer
The answer is B. Fractional distillation separates the
compounds in crude oil by their boiling points.
Standardized Test Practice
Question 5
Which of the following structures is a peptide?
A.
B.
Standardized Test Practice
C.
D.
Standardized Test Practice
Answer
The answer is C. An amine group of one amino acid can
combine with the carboxylic acid group of another amino
acid to form a peptide.
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