Social process theories
Psychological & sociological
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Social process
Criminality is a function of individual
socialization and the social
psychological interactions people have
with the various institutions and
processes of society
 Socialization: process by which an
individual’s behavior is shaped in
conforming with the standards of the
culture
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Social process (cont)
Agents of socialization
 Family
 School
 Peers
 Media
 Authorities--employers, CJS
 If these relationships positive, lawabiding
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The Family & Crime
Characteristics of families
A variety of studies have been done
 Common patterns
 Two-way street: easy babies have less
maladjustment than difficult babies
 1. Inconsistent discipline (not to be
confused with being lenient-”woodshed” theory is too simplistic)
 Consider this from a learning theory
standpoint
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Family characteristics
2. Poor supervision
 3. High levels of family conflict,
escalation
 4. Parental deviance, such as parental
substance abuse, parental criminality
(often in the past) and maternal
depression
 5. Large family size (supervision issue)
 6. Poor living conditions
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Family characteristics
7. Abuse and neglect
 Neglect a bigger problem
 Studies surveying delinquents indicate
higher rates (about 1/3) as compared to
the general population
 A New York study found that about ½ of
families with abuse had a child who
went to juvenile court
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Characteristics of families
8. Broken homes
 Early studies showed a relationship,
later studies have not been definitive
 In the earlier studies, one parent homes
less common
 Stigma and difficulty of obtaining a
divorce
 Stigma attached to unmarried mothers

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Characteristics of families
This picture has changed. Single
parent homes doubled in 30 years.
 It is probably not surprising that more
recent studies would have different
results
 Problems with studies: records do not
tell about home dynamics, such as level
of conflict.
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Characteristics of families
Single parent homes more at risk for
delinquency, however:
 Is this due to poverty, which is more
likely in single parent homes?
 There is some evidence that children
are more likely to be processed as
delinquents if they come from a single
parent home
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Characteristics
The major variable appears to be
amount of supervision. Families in
which there is adequate supervision,
whether the mother is helped by other
relatives, paid caretakers, etc..., are not
at high risk for delinquency.
 This is also the case for very young
mothers, whose children are at risk.
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Major factors
Age
 Educational level
 Financial status
 Social capital
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Woodlawn study
This study was done in the Woodlawn
area of Chicago (high crime area)
 Children categorized as aggressive or
nonaggressive. Aggressive children in
both one and two parent homes more
likely to be delinquent. With nonaggressive, children in single homes
more at risk than in two parent homes.
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Woodlawn

Suggest that both individual and family
factors play a role, each adding to
possible risk or non-risk.
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Attachment
Final family characteristic predictive of
delinquency:
 9. Attachment--lack of a warm,
supportive parent-child relationship
 Attachment: a strong affectional tie
 Babies do not show an obvious
preference for a particular adult during
the first few months of life
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Attachment (cont)
At around 4-5 months, begin to
distinguish and exhibit “stranger
anxiety”
 Typically develop a preference, usually
for one person (usually the mother)
 Prefers that person to all others, seeks
comfort, etc...
 Must happen within the first two years
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Attachment (cont)
Children who do not form a strong
attachment typically have problems,
including school difficulties, lack of
empathy for others, and dysfunctional
relationships
 In some cases there may even be
failure to thrive
 Harlow’s monkeys
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Attachment (cont.)
Factors which hinder attachment/
bonding
 Unattractiveness, illness, irritable baby,
handicaps, chronic stress, chaotic
environment
 Protective factors
 Being attractive, healthy, an “easy”
baby, stable environment
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Attachment (cont.)
When child becomes attached, prefers
that person to all others, comforted by
presence, seeks approval
 Mother is also attached to the child
 Adaptive from an evolutionary
standpoint--adult must gain something,
or would not take care of the child
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Attachment (cont)
Bond affects cognitive development--the
thinking is that the adult gives the child
a secure base from which to explore
 Bond affects social competence later
 From a learning theory standpoint, love
and approval play a significant role in
teaching behaviors.
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Attachment (cont)

If there is not a bond, then the child will
not care about love and approval from
the parent, and the parent will be less
able to control the child. In
adolescence, once the child is bigger
and stronger, a parent can control only
through approval/disapproval.
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Schools
Offenders are more likely to have poor
academic achievement
 Fail more grades
 Truant or drop out
 Low motivation
 Feel alienated, not involved in school
activities
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Family environment
Restrictive
Warmth Submissive
Compliant
Polite
Hostility Withdrawn
Neurotic
Permissive
Active
Outgoing
Creative
Delinquent
Aggressive
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Schools (continued)
Factors that lower delinquency
 Fair but firm rules in a nurturing
environment
 A solid nucleus of motivated students
 Classroom size, condition of buildings,
student-teacher ratio not predictive
alone
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Differential association
Behavior is learned in interaction with
other persons
 Principal part of the learning occurs in
personal groups, such as family or
friends.
 Learning criminal behavior includes
learning techniques, rationalizations and
attitudes
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Differential association (cont)
A person becomes criminal when he
perceives more favorable to unfavorable
consequences to violating the law
 and, when he has more rationalizations
favorable to violating the law than to
obeying the law
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Differential association (cont)
Social support for criminality can
overcome social controls. This social
support comes from associating with
criminal peers
 Such associations may vary in
frequency, duration, priority, and
intensity
 As frequency increases, more likely
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DA (continued)
Duration: longer the association, more
likely
 Priority: age when one first encounters
criminal peers--earlier, more likely
 Intensity: importance and prestige
given to the people that are learned
from
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Research on DA
Criminal offenders do tend to have
criminal friends “started running with
the wrong crowd”
 However, which came first--association
which led to crime, or criminal
tendencies which led to associations
with criminal peers (birds of a feather
flocking together)
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DA (cont)
Explains onset of criminality
 Explains presence of crime in all
segments of society, explains white
collar crime
 explains why some people in high crime
areas refrain from crime
 Does not explain desistance
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Neutralization theory
Rationalizations which overcome
society’s norms
 Denial of responsibility: I didn’t mean to
do it
 Denial of injury: I didn’t really hurt
anybody (insurance will pay for it, etc...)
 Denial of victim: They had it coming to
them
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Neutralization (cont)
condemnation of others: everyone is
picking on me. Shift blame to others-corrupt CJS, etc...
 Appeal to higher loyalties, i.e.., I did it
for the group
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Social control (Hirschi)
All people have the potential to violate
the law
 Modern society presents many
opportunities for illegal activity
 Why to people obey the law?
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Social control
The stronger the social bond to society,
less likely the person is to be delinquent
 Weaker the bond, delinquency likely
 Four components of the social bond
 1. attachment 2. commitment
 3. involvement 4. belief
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Social control
Attachment: sensitivity and interest in
others, feelings of affection, respect to
conventional (law-abiding) people
 Time, energy and efforts expended in
conventional goals.
 Involvement: in conventional activities-school, recreation, family
 Belief: share common moral beliefs
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Research on social control
Hirschi asked high school students
questions concerning:
 feelings of affection and respect for
parents, teachers, peers, etc.
 Plans for the future (commitment)
 Their activities
 Beliefs about society, right & wrong
 Self reported delinquency, arrests
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Social control (cont)
Youths strongly attached to parents and
peers, less likely to be delinquent
 Delinquents: weak and distant
relationships (not what Sutherland
would expect)
 Commitment to conventional goals,
education, jobs, etc..., less likely to be
delinquent
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Social control (cont)
Nondelinquents spent more time in
conventional activities, such as
homework, school activities, sports,
family and community recreation, etc..
 Delinquents--more time smoking,
drinking, riding around in cars, began
these behaviors younger
 No differences in terms of beliefs
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Social control (cont)
Good empirical research
 Which comes first: does a weak bond
lead to delinquency, or do delinquent
acts lead to weakened bonds?
 Implications
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Labelling theory
“Looking-glass” self: part of the way we
perceive ourselves is based on the
perceptions of others
 Research support
 Primary deviance: deviance that is
common, that occurs but has not yet
been labelled
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Labelling (cont)
Secondary deviance: deviance that is
the result of labelling, a self-fulfilling
prophecy
primary deviance
ceremonies
labelling
secondary deviance
continuation of the behavior
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Labelling
Implications: avoid labelling when
possible
 Advocated: diversion,
deinstitutionalization, due process
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