The Essential Elements of
an RtI Model of Student
Support
9th Annual San Diego
Summer Leadership
Institute
Richard R. Reid, PhD
Green Mountain Psycho-Educational
Services
The following contributed to the content of this presentation.
Additional information can be found at their respective
websites.
National Research Center on
Learning Disabilities (NRCLD)
Albany Community School
Allen Brook School
Glover Community School
Williston Central School
Wolcott Elementary School
National Student Progress
Monitoring Center
Definition
RtI is a process for improving the educational
outcomes of all students through monitoring
student progress and using the data to make
decisions about instructional needs and
modifications. This process utilizes quick and
efficient assessment procedures and is useful in
managing early intervening services; and
information from this process can be used as
part of the process for determination of LD.
Responsiveness to
Intervention
Critical Features & System
Components
RTI: Practices
Critical Feature
Students receive high quality, research-based
instruction by qualified staff in their general
education setting.
Research Supported Core Reading
Instruction





…integrates the features that identify
scientifically based reading research
Phonemic awareness
Phonics
Fluency
Vocabulary
Comprehension
Phonemic Awareness
Phonemic
awareness is the
ability to hear,
identify, and
manipulate
individual sounds
in spoken words
(Torgesen, 1998).
PA Research & Instruction
 PA improves word reading, spelling, and
comprehension
 Poor readers who enter first grade with
weak PA are most likely to be the poor
readers in fourth grade
 Auditory Activities
 Needs to follow the developmental
hierarchy of phonological awareness
Phonics
An understanding
of the alphabetic
principle—the
relationship
between
phonemes and
graphemes.
Phonics Research
 Systematic and explicit phonics
instruction…
– is more effective than non-systematic or
no phonics instruction
– significantly improves young
children’s decoding, spelling,
and reading comprehension
and older students’ word reading
and oral text reading skills.
Fluency
 The ability to
read text
–quickly
–accurately
–with proper
expression
Fluency Research
 Repeated and monitored oral reading
improves reading fluency and overall
reading achievement.
 Caution: Silent, independent reading with
little guidance or feedback may not
be enough to improve fluency and
overall reading
achievement.
Vocabulary
• The knowledge of
the meanings and
pronunciation of
words that are used
in oral and written
language.
Vocabulary Research
 Can be developed
– Directly (teach important, difficult, and
useful words) (Beck et. al, 2002).
– Indirectly
 Vocabulary knowledge is strongly related to
overall reading comprehension.
 The relationship of vocabulary to
reading comprehension gets stronger
as reading material becomes more
complex and the vocabulary
becomes more extensive.
Comprehension
 The ability to
make sense of
text and to
monitor for
understanding.
Comprehension Research
 Text comprehension can be improved
by instruction that
– is explicit and direct
– helps readers use specific
comprehension strategies
Differentiation of Instruction
A teaching philosophy based on the
premise that teachers should adapt
instruction to student differences
Teachers modify their instruction to
meet students varying readiness levels,
learning preferences, and interests
Is It Worth It?
 There is no bigger challenge than inserting
students into a one size fits all classroom
and then dealing with the spillover of the
emotional and behavioral reactions
Research Supported Core Math
Instruction





…integrates the features that identify
scientifically based reading research
Understanding
Computing
Applying
Reasoning
Engaging
RTI: Practices
Critical Features
General education instructors and staff
assume an active role in students’
assessment in that curriculum by conducting
universal screening of academics.
Universal Screening
Results in Early Intervention
Early Intervention Makes a
Difference
 Can significantly reduce number of children
performing below criterion
 Results tend to be long lasting for most
children
 Largest gains are observed during early
intervention
 Puts children on growth trajectory
 Provides a basis for progress monitoring
(benchmarking for all, frequent monitoring for
at risk students)
Early Intervention Makes a
Difference
 Can significantly reduce number of children
performing below criterion
 Tier 1 interventions can result in reducing at risk
readers from 20% of population to 6%
 Tier 2 interventions can further reduce to 2 to 4%
 Results tend to be long lasting for most
children
 Largest gains are observed during early
intervention
 Puts children on growth trajectory
Universal Screening
Students are tested at one point in time.
Those scoring below a score are designated
at risk.
It results in instructional decision making
At-risk students may enter preventative
intervention.
What to Screen?
Skills needs to be a reliable predictors of future
performance
Tools need to be:
Readily available
Standardized
Easily administered/efficient
Psychometric properties available?
 Sensitivity and Specificity
 Reliability
 Predictive validity
Some Skills to Screen
 Phonological
Awareness
– Phoneme segmentation
fluency
 Rapid Automatic
Naming
– Letter Naming
– Letter Sound
 Phonics
– Nonsense word
Fluency
 Word Identification
 Oral Reading Fluency
 Reading
Comprehension
 Vocabulary
 Quantity array
 Number identification
 Quantity discrimination
 Missing number
Curriculum Based
Measurement
CBM
Curriculum Based Assessment
vs.
Curriculum Based Measurement
 CBA is a very broad term that describes any
testing strategy that uses a students
curriculum as the basis for assessment and
decision making. CBM is one type of CBA
…connects oral
words and numerals
Up to 50
Demonstrates an
Understanding of the
Relative magnitude
Of numbers
…understands additio
and subtraction by
solving problems
Involving situations in
which one adds to,
takes from
Recognizes and
Names coins
Estimates and
evaluates
reasonableness
of solutions
Reading
Fluency
Key Features of CBM
 Tests sample year-long curriculum
 Tests are relatively brief and easy to
administer
 Tests are given frequently (e.g., from twice
weekly to every month) to judge student
progress
 Each alternate form samples the same
types of skills at the same level of difficulty
Key Features of CBM
 Student performance is used to set longterm goals
 Scores are graphed, and teachers use a
decision-making framework to judge
adequacy of student progress
 Data are used to compare/contrast
effectiveness of different instructional
methods
 CBM has documented reliability and
validity
CBM’s are General Outcome Measures
Designed to serve as “signs” of general
achievement
CBM’s are General Outcome Measures
Designed to serve as “signs” of general
achievement
Are typically fluency measures
Fluency
 What is it?
– The ability to quickly and accurately apply or
engage in a basic skill
– Automaticity provides an overall indicator of
student growth and development in the skill area.
 What is it not?
– Fluency will not tell you everything you need to
know about student performance.
– However, there is a strong relationship between
fluency and the comprehensive application of the
basic skill.
CBM’s are General Outcome Measures
Designed to serve as “signs” of general
achievement
Are typically fluency measures
Are standardized tests
CBM’s are General Outcome Measures
Designed to serve as “signs” of general
achievement
Are typically fluency measures
Are standardized tests
Are designed to be as short as possible so
as not to conflict with teaching.
CBM’s are General Outcome Measures
Designed to serve as “signs” of general
achievement
Are typically fluency measures
Are standardized tests
Are designed to be as short as possible so
as not to conflict with teaching.
 Describe academic competence at a
single point in time
CBM’s are General Outcome Measures
Are sensitive to improvement in short
periods of time so you can quantify the
rate at which students develop academic
competence over time
CBM’s are General Outcome Measures
Are sensitive to improvement in short
periods of time so quantify the rate at
which students develop academic
competence over time
Each CBM test is of equivalent
difficulty
CBM’s are General Outcome Measures
Are sensitive to improvement in short
periods of time so quantify the rate at
which students develop academic
competence over time
Each CBM test is of equivalent
difficulty
Measurement is frequent
CBM’s are General Outcome Measures
Assessment information is used to
formulate instructional decisions to build
more effective programs to increase
student achievement
CBM’s are General Outcome Measures
Assessment information is used to
formulate instructional decisions to build
more effective programs to increase
student achievement
Have capacity for providing growth
trajectory (samples year long)
Reading Fluency Norms
Grade
VT GEs
AIMSweb
Hasbrouck &
Tindal (2005)
1
50-80
59 (90K)
53 (20K)
2
80-100
95 (85K)
89 (20K)
3
90-120
111(85K)
107 (18K)
4
115-140
128 (60K)
123 (16K)
5
125-150
140 (57K)
139 (15K)
6
135-160
154 (35K)
150 (11K)
7
140-175
154 (24K)
150 (6K)
8
150-180
153 (20K)
151 (5K)
Reading Fluency
120
Words Correct Per Minute
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
1
2
3
4
5
6
Beenchmark Probes
7
8
9
10
RTI: Practices
Critical Feature
Frequent progress monitoring of student
performance occurs for all students and is
used to pinpoint student-specific difficulties.
Progress Monitoring Schedule
Reading Fluency
120
Words Correct Per Minute
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
1
2
3
4
5
6
Beenchmark Probes
Parent Contact
Fall of 3rd grade
7
8
9
10
Progress Monitoring
 Teachers assess students’ academic
performance on a regular basis to:
– determine whether children are profiting
appropriately from instruction & interventions
– build more effective programs for children who
do not benefit appropriately from typical
instruction
– provide students with feedback and enhance
motivation and encouraging goal-directed
behavior
Formative Evaluation
 Ongoing, systematic monitoring of
student performance occurs with
individuals in:
– the general education classroom
– during supplemental instruction
– during intensive instruction
Formative Evaluation
 Is ongoing evaluation of student
progress toward meeting goals,
standards, GLEs
 It examines learning as skills are being
taught
 It requires frequent and direct data
collection.
 If data is collected daily, decisions can
be made daily
Why Is Progress Monitoring
Important?
Research has demonstrated that when
teachers use progress monitoring for
instructional decision-making purposes:
– students achieve at higher levels
– teacher decision-making improves
– students tend to be more aware of their
performance
(e.g., see Fuchs, Deno, Mirkin, 1984; L. S. Fuchs, Fuchs,
Hamlett, & Ferguson, 1992; Stecker, Fuchs, & Fuchs, in
press)
Benefits of Conducting Progress
Monitoring
 Student performance data on important, gradelevel skills/content can be gathered quickly and
easily
 Student progress can be analyzed in order to
modify instructional programs when needed and/or
adjust student goals upward
 Individual student data can be compared to data of
other students in the classroom, in the child’s
school, or in the school district
Degrees of Progress Monitoring
 Benchmarking/School Wide Screening
 Assess all children three to four times over the course of
the school year
 Strategic Monitoring
 Assess children in “some risk” category every two-four
weeks
 Intensive Monitoring
 Assess children in “at risk” category as often as weekly
Questions Students Ask
Themselves about CBM Graphs
 Are my scores going up?
 What’s my highest score? Can I beat
it in the next 2 weeks?
 What skill(s) do I want to work hard
on during the next 2 weeks to try to
increase my CBM score?
RTI: Practices
Critical Feature
School staff implement scientific, researchbased interventions to address a student’s
difficulties.
Rationale for Research-Based
Interventions
 Interventions that have a proven track
record increase the probability of success
for our students
 Interventions based on theory, professional
opinion, testimonial, and subjective
evaluation rarely stand up to closer scrutiny
 Implementation of ineffective interventions
delays implementation of effective
interventions
RTI: Practices
Critical Feature
School staff use progress-monitoring data and
decision rules to determine intervention’s
effectiveness and needed modifications.
Decision Making Through an
Examination of the Data
What Are the Decisions that
Teachers Need to Make?
Estimate rates improvement
Identify students who are not demonstrating
adequate progress
Measure students response to the
intervention
Compare the efficacy of different forms of
instruction to design more effective,
individualized instructional programs for
struggling learners
Data-based Decision
Making
Rather than making decisions that are based on
indirect and inferential test measures, decisions are
based on hard data in regard to the student’s
response to instruction and/or intervention. A priori
decision making rules are adopted.
Graphs are essential in
Facilitating the decision
making process!!!
General Decision-Making
Framework
Trend-Line Rule
– If trend of student progress is steeper than goal line,
raise goal.
– If trend of student progress is less steep than goal line,
make a teaching change.
– Requires a minimum of 3 data points (3 weeks of
instruction)
Goal or Aim Line
Trend Line
Goal or Aim Line
Trend Line
Goal or Aim Line
Trend Line
Goal or Aim Line
Trend Line
General Decision-Making
Framework
4-Point Rule
–
–
–
–
At least four weeks of instruction have occurred.
If all 4 are above goal line, increase goal.
If all 4 are below goal line, make a teaching change.
If the 4 data points are both above and below the goal
line, keep collecting data until trend-line rule or 4-point
rule can be applied.
Goal or Aim Line
RTI: Practices
Critical Feature
Systematic assessment of the fidelity and
integrity with which instruction and
interventions is conducted.
Fidelity = the teacher uses all of
the intervention components
skillfully
Integrity = the teacher adheres
to the recommended procedures
and practices.
Fidelity matters across evidencebased programs
 The best outcomes are associated with high
fidelity practitioners
 Careful attention to the implementation of
evidence-based programs results in high
fidelity
 Evidence of the effectiveness of an
intervention does not help implement the
program or practice successfully
RTI: Practices
Critical Feature No. 7
Support services are provided in multiple tiers
of increasingly intense student interventions.
School-Wide Systems for
Student Success
Behavioral Systems
Academic Systems
Intensive, Individual Interventions
•Individual Students
•Data-based
•High Intensity
•Of longer duration
1-5%
5-10%
Targeted Small Group Interventions
•Fixed Duration/Intensive
•Supplemental Services
•Standard Protocol Approach
•Data-based
Universal Interventions
•All students
•Preventive, proactive
80-90%
Intensive, Individual Interventions
•Individual Students
•Assessment-based
•Intense, durable procedures
1-5%
5-10%
80-90%
Targeted Group Interventions
•Some students (at-risk)
•High efficiency
•Rapid response
Universal Interventions
•All settings, all students
•Preventive, proactive
National Reading Panel
Conclusions
 A combination of comprehension
strategies is most effective
 Scientific, Research Based Interventions
 Explicit, systematic instruction
 Target areas of need (five components of
skilled reading)
National Reading Panel
Conclusions
 Provide intense intervention
 Focus on specific skill development
 Implemented by trained personnel
The Theory Behind Tier I
When Tier I instruction is implemented
with fidelity, using a well-designed,
evidence-based instructional activities, it
should meet the needs of 80-90% of our
students.
The Theory Behind Tier II
When Tier I instruction is implemented with
fidelity, using a well-designed, evidencebased instructional activities, and struggling
students are provided with appropriate and
sufficient supplemental supports, it should
meet the needs of 90-95% of our students.
Tier II (NIHCD Research)
 Small Groups (1:3, 1:5, 1:10)
 10-12 wks, 3-4x per wk, 30-60 min per
session
 Scripted, specific intervention
 Point system for motivation
 Immediate corrective feedback
 Mastery of content before moving on
 More time on difficult activities
 More opportunities to respond
 Fewer transitions
 Setting goals and self monitoring
Rapid Responders to Tier II
 Those without underlying processing
disorders (e.g., naming speed)
 Those with phonemic awareness difficulties
 Those whose reading problems are a result
of limited exposure
 Those with better foundational literacy skills
 IQ does not differentiate those who will
respond
The Theory Behind Tier III
In spite of our best efforts to support
students, there will be 5-10% of our
students, who as a result of a learning
disability, will continue to require
intensive services for a prolonged
period pf time.
Billy's Reading Fluency Progress
110
Differentiated
Instruction – Paired
Reading
Correct Words Per Minute
100
90
80
Tier 1
70
60
50
40
30
20
1
2
3
4
5
6
Fluency Probes
7
8
9
10
Billy's Reading Fluency Progress
110
Differentiated
Instruction – Paired
Reading
Correct Words Per Minute
100
90
80
Tier 1
70
60
50
40
30
20
1
2
3
4
5
6
Fluency Probes
7
8
9
10
Billy's Reading Fluency Progress
110
Differentiated
Instruction – Paired
Reading
Correct Words Per Minute
100
90
80
Great Leaps
Reading
Tier 2
Tier 1
70
60
50
40
30
20
1
2
3
4
5
6
Fluency Probes
7
8
9
10
Billy's Reading Fluency Progress
110
90
Differentiated
Instruction – Paired
Reading
80
Tier 1
Correct Words Per Minute
100
Great Leaps
Reading
Read Naturally &
Speed Drills
Tier 2
Tier 3
70
60
50
40
30
20
1
2
3
4
5
6
Fluency Probes
7
8
9
10
RTI: Practices
Critical Feature
The Educational Support Team is staffed
by key personnel and utilizes an efficient
targeted intervention & problem solving
model to address student needs.
Your School’s EST
The Backbone of RtI
Does your educational support team
function in a way that can support a
response to intervention model?
Problem Solving Models
Standard Protocol and Problem
Solving Models
Standard Protocol Approach
 Standard Protocols/Targeted Interventions
as part of the problem solving process
– Very specific curricular and instructional
approaches
– Have a history or research base in efficacy
– Facilities efficiency
Problem Solving Approach
1)
2)
3)
4)
Problem statement
Hypothesis generation
Hypothesis testing
Checking
Goals and Roles of the EST
a.k.a. SST
 Creates an environment for teachers,
parents, and other professionals to
collaborate and problem solve together
 Works to support teachers by making
data-based recommendations
 Is a venue for administrative leadership
 Willingness to improve or expand its
practices
Goals and Roles of the EST
 Work efficiently, become more focused
 Develop a community that will help solve
academic problems
 Help classroom teachers make databased decisions
 Increase exposure to research-based
interventions, what is working and what is
not
Goals and Roles of the EST
 Create an inventory of effective
interventions, strategies, and supports
 Monitor the overall academic health of the
school
 Make recommendations for systems change
as necessary
 Engage in a systematic, effective, and
efficient problem solving
Goals and Roles of the EST
 Guarantees high quality classroom
instruction
 On going monitoring of student progress
 Interventions are designed collaboratively by
teacher teams which includes general
educators, reading specialists, school
counselors, school psychologist, behavior
specialist, special educators, and parents
Goals and Roles of the EST
 Plans interventions so students may meet
academic and behavioral benchmarks
 Designs targeted interventions based on
student needs. They can take place during
whole class, small group or individual
instruction, as well as in the community
 Encourages parental participation
throughout the process
Therefore…Parental
Involvement Supports RtI
 Parents have vast knowledge about their
children and must be partners in the
educational system in sharing information
 Teachers and parents in partnership use
the resources necessary to meet the
educational needs of children in order to
promote positive outcomes
 Accurate information about student
progress is communicated regularly
between the school and the family