A Study Guide to Studies: IB Psychology Biological Level of Analysis Principles: Human behavior, is to some extent, genetically based (innate) Animal research can provide insight into human behavior There are biological Correlates of behavior Learning Outcome #2 “Examine one study related to localization of Brain Function” Name, Date Procedure / Type Findings 1. “HM”, Milner, 1957 2. Sperry’s Split Brain Research 3. Feinstein “SM” 4. Kluver and Bucy 1939 1. Case study. HM couldn’t make new memories due to an injury to his hippocampus. 2. Case studies and experiments 3. SM. Case study. Woman had no amygdala and she thus had no fear. 4. Experiments severing and stimulating the amygdala’s of various animals: wolverine, cat, monkey, etc. 1. **Illustrated the localized role of the hippocampus in memory formation. **Hm could learn new procedural memories, thus such memories are not stored in Hippo **Study showed that memory processes are more complicated than originally believed. Hippo important, but not only structure involved. 2. Sperry researched split brain patients whose corpus callosum was severed to treat severe seizures. He found that: *language centers are located in the left hemisphere of the brain * Lateralization—in that the left side of the brain controls the right side of the body, and vice versa. *Degree to which much processing occurs subconsciously or unconsciously. 3. Amygdala controls fear response. Amygdala is responsible for the fear response in animals. 4. Found that when the amygdala of animals was severed from higher brain regions, the animals would cower in fear and their aggression levels were almost zero. Contrast that with stimulation of the amygdala which caused demonstrably aggressive behavior. #4 “Explain, using examples, the function of two hormones on human behavior” 1. Fisher “love studies” – oxytocin on pair bonding 2. Melatonin on sleep 3. Testosterone 1. Biological knowledge, as well as experiments and case studies http://www.americanscientist.org/issues/pub/ high-on-fidelity 1. Oxytocin is released by the hypothalamus gland during child birth and also helps the breast express milk. It helps cement the strong bond between mother and child. It is also released by both sexes during orgasm and it is thought that it promotes bonding when adults are intimate. The theory goes that the more sex a couple has, the deeper their bond becomes 2. Biological knowledge. Experiments. Bonding basics The mechanics behind the power of 3. Correlational Studies FIND SPECIFIC STUDY!! attachment cues are dead simple. These familiar behaviors (skin-to-skin contact, eye contact, affectionate touch, nurturing, etc.) release oxytocin in a part of the brain known as the amygdala and relax it. Without this hormone induced ease, we don't bond. We remain on guard. 2. In humans, melatonin is produced by the pineal gland, a small endocrine gland[29] located in the center of the brain but outside theblood–brain barrier. The melatonin signal forms part of the system that regulates the sleep–wake cycle by chemically causing drowsiness and lowering the body temperature Human melatonin production decreases as a person ages.[34] Also, as children become teenagers, the nightly schedule of melatonin release is delayed, leading to later sleeping and waking times.[35] 3. Men are far more violent than women due to their increased levels of testosterone. Additionally, taking artificial testosterone has been shown to increase aggressive and violent behavior (steroid use). Explain, using one or more example, the effect of one neurotransmit ter on human behavior a. Kazamatsu and Hirai 1999 b. Martinez and Kesner (1991) c. Fisher Dopamine studies (1990s) a. Experiment in which the researchers took blood samples of Japanese monks prior to them engaging in a pilgrimage up a holy mountain. During this trip, the monks neither ate or drank for 72 hours…the researchers also took their blood samples at the conclusion of the pilgrimage. Hallucinations and heightened . What they found was that serotonin levels were HIGHLY elevated in the monks at the conclusion of the trip. Thus, serotonin is correlated with perception. The behavioral change that occurred was in regard to perception. This can be likened to the effect LSD has on individual perception because LSD a. D. dopamine and drugs. Berridge and Kringelbach (2009) perceptual awareness were present during the holy retreat. b. Experiment. The researchers had 3 groups of mice. All the mice were made to run through a maze. The control group was given nothing. Experimental group a was given a drug that blocks reuptake of ACH, thus increasing it’s presence in the brain. Experimental group B was given a drug that increased the speed of reuptake of ACH, thus decreasing it’s presence in the brain. c. Fisher 2004. Found that large amounts of dopamine are released during orgasm and also at just the SIGHT of your love interest. d. fMRI technology has been used to study the neural pathways involved with addiction and researchers have discovered that dopamine pathways in the brain are highly active during subjective experiences of pleasure. Discuss two effects of the environment on a. Rosenzweig and Bennet (1972) Role of environmental stimulation on brain a. Experiment. Rats placed in either enriched environment or impoverished environment. Spent 30-60 days in their environments. mimics serotonin and LSD users also experience hallucinations and heightened perceptual awareness. b. The researchers found that the experimental group with the ACH reuptake blocker ran through the maze the quickest the second time around!! The Experimental group given the drug to increase reuptake made the most mistakes the second time around and were the slowest in completing the maze. The control group was in the middle speed and mistake wise. Thus showing a correlation between ACH and memory! C. This explains why people feel “addicted” to love. Why they have such a chemical and profound attraction to their love interest and why they can sink into a depression—literal dopamine withdrawal—if they lose their love. d. Illustrates the fact that addiction is two fold. It can be chemical but it also is emotional and pleasure based. a. Results. The brains of the Enriched environment rats had increased thickness and higher weight of the cerebral cortex. Also developed more AcH receptors in cortex (important for memory). Solid experiment. Rigorously controlled lab experiment. Animal models, physiological processes placiticity b. Plasticity. Bremner et al. (2003) Effects of Stress, PTSD on Hippocampal Volume C. observational learning. Humans learn by watching others. MIRROR neurons. 1991, Rizzolatti et al. Parma Italy. b. MRI scans used to measure the size of participants hippocampus. Theory was PTSD and prolonged stress would cause a shrink in hippocampus size, and thus decrease in memory performance. c. Experiment. Mirror neurons were discovered to “mimic” behavior in brain as it’s being observed. d. Experiment. Gave puncture wounds to university students. One group got them day before summer vaction, another before finals. D. Stress impedes healing e. Put a cold virus into the nose of people. 47% Kiecolt-Glaser 1998 of those living “stress filled lives” got sicks, whereas only 27% of those living “relatively E. Cohen et al. 2003, stress free lives” got sick. EXPERIMENT. 2006 Stress decreases immune response Discuss the use of brain imaging technologies in investigating MRI *Gives detailed pictures of the inside of body. Can show blood flow B. Ashtari et al. (2009) a. Students were hooked up to fMRI machine and show pictures of different humans or objects. It was predicted that the prefrontal cortex would be active when participants looked at humans but not when they looked at objects. so perhaps not SO generalizable to humans. b. Researchers found that there were deficits in shortterm memory and then performed MRI scans of the participants’ brains. Particpants were Veterans and female adults who had experienced early childhood sexual abuse. Some had PTSD, but not all. Hippocampus was indeed smaller in PTSD patients than in a control group. Also, veterans with most memory problems (as told via survey) had the smallest hippocampal volume. Showed a clear correlation between number of years of abuse as measured by trauma test, memory problems, and hippocampus size. c. The researchers had a monkey hooked up to an fMRI machine and found that the same areas in his brain lit up while watching a man reach for a banana that lit up while the monkey himself was reaching for a banana. This illustrates a biological basis for observational learning as well as “mental practice.” This is also a biological basis for empathy. As you can literally FEEL someone’s pain as you watch them in pain. d. The group that got the wounds three days before final exams healed 40% more SLOWLY than those wounded before summer vacation!! a. This was found except when participants looked at pictures of people from extreme outgroups such as the homeless and addicts. Brain regrions related to “disgust” were activated an there was no activity in the prefrontal cortex. Thus, This indicated dehumanization of outgroups has a biological effect. These groups were apparently viewed as ‘disgusting objects’ and not the relationship between bio factors and behavior. fMRI *Measures changes in blood flow in the active brain as well as electrical signals. a. Harris and fiske (2006) Examine one evolutionary aspect of behavior a. Darwin’s theory of natural selection states that living organisms face environmental challenges. Organisms that adapt the best to these challenges will survive to pass on their genes to their offspring. b. used mri scan to investigate whether substance abuse (marijuana) in young children can damage a developing brain. Scanned brains of 14 young men who had a history of heavy marijuana use over a long period. The control group was 14 men who did not use marijuana. a. theory b. Experiment re: disgust in humans as innate c. Survey. Online. 77,000 participants from 165 countries. people. Illustrates biological explanation for mean, crude behavior towards outgroups (holocaust, racism, slavery etc.). B. Results of the mri scan showed that there were brain abnormalities in the frontal, parietal, and temporal regions of the brains of the marijuana users. The development of white matter (myelin) was affected and this could explain slow information processing in the brain. Concluded that early marijuana use can affect brain development negatively, but this was correlational data so more research needed. B) Emotion of disgust allowed ancestors to survive long enough to produce offspring, who in turn passed sensitivities on to us. Experiment found that Women in their first trimester scored much higher across the board in disgust sensitivity than their counterparts in second and third trimesters. C) Found that the disgust reaction was strongest for those stimuli that have a schema associated with harm to one’s own health or immune system. b. Fessler on Disgust (2006) C. Curtis et al. (2004) Disgust Discuss the extent to a. Bouchard Minnesota Twin Study (1979-1990) a. correlational study. Estimated heritability of intelligence is around 70%. a. Overall, great study, but some concerns: relied on media coverage to recruit which genetics influence behavior can’t assume reared together = same environment, referred to as, “equal environment assumption” Some ethical concerns about way he reunited the twins Cognitive Level of Analysis Learning Outcome *Evaluate Schema Theory Name, Date Bartlett, 1932 Procedure / Type Experiment. Had subjects read stories that were unfamiliar to them. I.e. Native American Story. Had subjects try to recall the story after hearing them. Discuss, with reference to relevant research studies, the extent to which one cognitive process is reliable Loftus 1974 A. Experiment. Had subjects watch a video of a car crash. Asked them to estimate speed at which the car was going when it: Contacted = 31.8 Hit = 34 Findings Found that subjects often substituted familiar details for unfamiliar ones. Changed canoes to boats. Changed seal hunting to fishing. Etc. Shows people default to schemas for memory reconstruction. Memory as reconstructive. A. Informed about the profound effects leading questions have on eyewitness testimony. Also supported the idea that memory is actively reconstructed. And malleable. (memory/perception). Loftus, 1995 Evaluate 2 models or theories of one cognitive process (memory or emotion) Bumped = 38 Collided = 39 Smashed = 40 Atkinson model of memory B. Experiment with false memories. Lost in a shopping Mall She gathered 25 college aged students and their parents. The parents provided information about the test subjects’ childhood. The researchers then prepared a booklet containing 4 short stories from the test subject’s childhood. One of these was false. The false one was always presented 3rd in the booklet. A week later. The subjects came in for interviews. They were asked about “remembering” the events contained in the booklet mailed to them (they were also asked to write written reflections on each memory in the booklet at the time of receiving it). 7 of the 30 subjects “remembered” the false memory of being lost in a shopping mall. “Multi-store Model of Memory” MSM. 3 boxes of memory: sensory, short, and long. AKA Sensory, Working, and Long. Glanzer and Cunitz 1966 a. Experiments establishing the seriel positioning effects: Primacy and Recency **Also, in follow up. Participants in the different groups were asked a week later if they remembered seeing broken glass. There was no broken glass. But 32% of those in “smash” group said there was. B. Experiment showed that it is possible to implant false memories through suggestion and reinforcement of those false memories. Though only a small percentage were able to have the false memory implanted, it is still significant because it shows it’s possible and actually quite easy and simple to do so. A more concerted effort of false memory implantation would likely yield more robust results. a. Primacy effect is said to show that rehearsal moves things from Short to Long term memory. b. HM Case study Peterson and Peterson, 59 b. HM illustrates that there are multiple memory systems because he could no longer form new explicit memories but could form new implicit ones. So it supports a theory that outlines different memory systems, which the MSM does. c. Participants given number triads. Distracted with another task. Then asked to recall as many triads as possible. They got worse at it the longer they waited before recall. Working Memory Model: Working memory is viewed as an active store used to hold and manipulate information. Similar but different. Central executive regulates: Phonological Loop, Episodic Buffer, VisuoSpatial Sketchpad, moving things to LTM via encoding. Discuss how social or cultural factors affect one cognitive process a. Bartlett schema theory see above b. Nesbitt…fill in c. Veenhoven (2009) fill in d. a. barlett schema theory (1936) see above b. Nesbitt…fill in c. Veenhoven (2012) fill in c. Illustrated the degree to which memory is lost from short term memory if not rehearsed. a. Found that subjects often substituted familiar details for unfamiliar ones. Changed canoes to boats. Changed seal hunting to fishing. Etc. Shows people default to schemas for memory reconstruction. Memory as reconstructive. Since schemas are created via experience, and experience is rooted in culture, culture affects the cognitive process of memory. b. Explain how biological factors affect one cognitive process a.HM Case a. H.M couldn’t form new Long Term study works Memories LTM, but he still had short term. for this as well. b. Lsd serotonin link b.LSD serotonin relationship Social Level of Analysis Learning Name, Date Outcome **Illustrates the role of the Hippocampus in forming new Long Term Memories because HM couldn’t form new long term memories. Procedure/Type Findings Describe the role of situational and dispositional factors in explaining behavior Suller, 2004, “online disinhibition effect” Correlational Analysis he explored six factors that could combine to change people's behaviour online. These are dissociative anonymity ("my actions can't be attributed to my person"); invisibility ("nobody can tell what I look like, or judge my tone"); asynchronicity ("my actions do not occur in real-time"); solipsistic Introjection ("I can't see these people, I have to guess at who they are and their intent"); dissociative imagination ("this is not the real world, these are not real people"); and minimising authority ("there are no authority figures here, I can act freely"). The combination of any number of these leads to people behaving in ways they wouldn't when away from the screen, often positively -being more open, or honest -- but sometimes negatively, abusing their fellow internet users in ways they wouldn't dream of offline. Describe the role of situational and dispositional factors in Milgrim, Stanley, 1961 Experiment Found that people readily obeyed authority figures. Factors that contributed to obedience were: Presence of authority figure Authority figure taking responsibility for events explaining behavior The more prestige (both real and perceived) the authority figure had, the more obedience occurred. Factor found to limit obedience was physical presence of the learner. PERSONAL INTERACTION LEADS TO MORALITY Describe the role of situational and dispositional factors in explaining behavior Kelly’s covariance model of attribution as well as Heider’s “attribution theory” Theory Co-variation principle states that people attribute behavior to the factors that are present when a behavior occurs and absent when it does not. Thus, the theory assumes that people make causal attributions in a rational, logical fashion, and that they assign the cause of an action to the factor that co-varies most closely with that action.[9] Harold Kelley's covariation model of Attribution looks to three main types of information from which to make an attribution decision about an individual's behavior. The first is consensus information, or information on how other people in the same situation and with the same stimulus behave. The second is distinctive information, or how the individual responds to different stimuli. The third is consistency information, or how frequent the individual's behavior can be observed with similar stimulus but varied situations. Discuss Two errors in attribution Lee, et al. 1977 Experiment illustrating fundamental attribution error. Discuss two errors in attribution Lau and Russel 1980, Self Serving Bias Miller and Ross, 1975 Survey, illustrating Self Serving Bias Assigned college students to 1 of 3 positions: Game show host, audience member or game show contestant. At the end the audience was asked to assess the intelligence of the participants. They consistently ranked the host the smartest, eventhough they knew the host had the more beneficial SITUATION—that of making up the questions and thus knowing all the answers. Found that when asked to account for reasons their American Football Team lost, American Football coaches overwhelmingly attributed their losses to situational factors whereas they attributed their wins to dispositional factors. Discuss two errors in attribution Evaluate Social Identity Theory Created by Tajfel Experiments utilizing self reporting via survey or interview. They created idea of Self Serving Bias Theory Self serving bias is the idea that when we expect to succeed and we do succeed, we attribute it to dispositional factors. However when we expect to succeed and fail, we attribute the failure to situational factors. Assumes that individuals strive to improve their self-image by trying to enhance their self esteem through personal achievement or through association with successful groups. Critiques: Evaluate Social Identity Theory and Sherif et al. “Robbers Cave” experiment 1954 **Describes but does not accurately predict behavior **Sometimes personal identity is stronger than group identity **Theory in isolation is reductionist—meaning that it fails to acknowledge how the environment interacts with the “self” such as poverty for example. He set out to see if he could make two groups of randomly assigned 13 year old boys dislike each other based on the principles of social identity theory. He succeeded marvelously!! Obviously. He concluded that what increases in group/out group animosity is competition for resources. Experiment Describe the role of situational and dispositional factors in explaining behavior Explain Social Learning Theory making reference to two relevant studies (1)Bandura “bobo doll experiment” He then wanted to know if he could make them become friends and eliminate the previously cultivated hate. He did this by requiring them to engage in cooperative tasks and common goals. He therefore concluded that the key to group harmony is shared goals. Bandura had children observe an adult “playing” in a room full of toys. In the experimental condition however, the adult proceeded to beat up a “bobo doll” violently. The children were then allowed into the room and encouraged to “play” Overwhelmingly, the children who observed the adult model beat up the bobo doll did so as well. This illustrates that observation also leads to learning—a change in behavior. Contrast this with the control group, the kids that didn’t see an adult model beat up the bobo doll, almost 0% of those kids treated the bobo doll in such an abusive way. Experiment According to Bandura, SLT is composed of four conditions (ARRM) required for a person to successfully model the behaviour of someone else. o Attention competence or power. Retention o o The person must first pay attention to the significant features of the model"s behaviour, influenced by the model"s distinctiveness, attractiveness, The observer must be able to store information about the model"s behaviour in memory, in order to be able to retrieve the information later (delayed, or "deferred imitation") or "immediate imitation" and act on, which is vital to SLT. Reproduction (Motor) The observer has to be able to physically and cognitively reproduce the desired behaviour. Imitation and practice leads to improvement of the learnt behaviour. o Motivation In order for observational learning to be successful, learns must be able to demonstrate the learnt behaviour that has been modelled. The presence of reinforcement (reward) or punishment is an important motivational factor and is an indirect form of learning, known as vicarious reinforcement. Explain Social Learning Theory making reference to 2 relevant studies (2) Gergely Experiment Discuss the use of compliance techniques Cialdini is creator Naturalistic observation combined with experiment for some of them Discuss the use of compliance techniques Aronson and Mills (1959) Experiment Gergely had 14 month old children observe an adult turn on a light using their head. In one condition, the adult had their hands flat on a table next to the light. In another condition, the adult had their hands occupied in the task of holding a blanket around their body. The infants that saw the adult turn the light on with their hands occupied, were more likely to use their hands to turn on the light when asked to do so, however the infants who saw the hands “free” condition were more likely to use their head, because they thought it was something special about the head. As in, the infants who saw the hands occupied, thought, “wow, they would’ve just used their hands if they could, but they’re busy, so that adult used their head, but my hands arent’ busy so I’ll use my hands” This illustrated to role of rationality and logic in observational learning; discrimination if you will. Also, that young young kids (14 month olds) do this and perhaps even earlier!!! 1. Authority 2. Commitment 3. Liking 4. Reciprocity 5. Scarcity 6. Social Proof HAZING. Looked at hazing as a compliance technique. Conducted an experiment and found that women who went through an embarrassing and laborious initiation in order to join a sex discussion group found the meeting extremely valuable, whereas the women who didn’t go through the hazing found the meetings boring Evaluate research on conformity to group norms Asch (1951) Experiment Sherif 1936 Experiment and useless, which is what they were designed to be!! Ha! Asch Conducted an experiment whereby he had 4-6 “confederates” people in on the study, all agree on an erroneous answer (it was in reference to line length). The point was to see whether or not the test subject would change their answer to the “wrong” answer as given by the confederates and thus, “conform” He did many varitions on this and found that factors affecting conformity include: Group size Unamity Group to be perceived as “in group” Confidence Self Esteem SHERIF 1936 Experiment Had participants observe an autokinetic effect (light blinks but appears to move due to our visual perceptual mechanics) and had participants estimate in what direction and how frequently the light moved. Evaluate Research on conformity to group norms Festinger, 1954— Social Comparison Theory. Survey. Structured interviews. Evaluate Research on Conformity to group norms Deutsch and Gerard 1955. Normative social influence vs. informational social influence Smith and Bond Theory. Structured interviews Discuss factors He then repeated the experiment with groups of 3 to 4 participants who gave answers aloud in random order. Sherif found that participants now used each other’s frame of references to inform their own ideas and the answers began to converge into more or less identical estimates. Festinger argued that people evaluate their own opinions and ideas through Social Comparison. As in by looking at what others do. If people are doing something different, or thinking something different from the individual, the individual experienes COGNITIVE DISSONANCE. In order to get rid of this, you either: 1. Conform 2. Rationalize your dissenting behavior/opinion and develop confidence. Normative social influence = conforming so you don’t look odd. Conforming to be a part of group. Asch Study. Informational Social Influence = this occurs when you literally don’t know what to do in a situation, so you do what others are doing. Experiment Found that conformity is less in individualist cultures and higher in influencing Conformity Define the term Culture and Cultural norms Examine the role of two cultural dimensions on behavior Using examples, explain EMIC and ETIC 1993, 1998--Conformity Lonner (95), Hofstede (02), Matsumoto (04) Cultural dimension is: An aspect of culture that can be measured relative to other cultures. Invented by HOFSTEDE collectivist cultures ie. America vs. japan. Lower in America, higher in japan. Theory Hofstede = survey of 88,000 IBM employees in 66 different countries. Lonner: Common rules that regulate interactions and behavior in a group as well as shared values and attitudes Hofstede: Mental Software Matsumoto: Dynamic system of rules, explicit and implicit, established by groups in order to ensure their survival. Example is: Collectivism vs. Individualism. EMIC Studies one culture alone to understand cultural specific behaviors ETIC looks at phenomena across cultures fo find out what could be universal in human behavior. Ex: Kashima – found a difference between American and Japanese attribution styles. Americans explained their own success by dispositional attribution while Japanese participants made situational ones. Berry—recreated ash’s study in sierra leone and in Inuit Canada. Africans were conformist (collectivist agricultural culture) while the inuit Canadians had much LOWER levels of conformity (they’re often alone and need to make decisions for themselves) Explain formation of stereotypes and their effect on behavior