A Study Guide to Studies:
IB Psychology
Biological Level of Analysis
Principles:
 Human behavior, is to some extent, genetically based (innate)
 Animal research can provide insight into human behavior
 There are biological Correlates of behavior
Learning
Outcome
#2 “Examine
one study
related to
localization of
Brain
Function”
Name, Date
Procedure / Type
Findings
1. “HM”, Milner, 1957
2. Sperry’s Split Brain
Research
3. Feinstein “SM”
4. Kluver and Bucy 1939
1. Case study. HM couldn’t make new
memories due to an injury to his hippocampus.
2. Case studies and experiments
3. SM. Case study. Woman had no amygdala
and she thus had no fear.
4. Experiments severing and stimulating the
amygdala’s of various animals: wolverine, cat,
monkey, etc.
1. **Illustrated the localized role of the
hippocampus in memory formation.
**Hm could learn new procedural memories,
thus such memories are not stored in Hippo
**Study showed that memory processes are
more complicated than originally believed.
Hippo important, but not only structure
involved.
2. Sperry researched split brain patients
whose corpus callosum was severed to treat
severe seizures. He found that:
*language centers are located in the left
hemisphere of the brain
* Lateralization—in that the left side of the
brain controls the right side of the body, and
vice versa.
*Degree to which much processing occurs
subconsciously or unconsciously.
3. Amygdala controls fear response.
Amygdala is responsible for the fear response
in animals.
4. Found that when the amygdala of animals
was severed from higher brain regions, the
animals would cower in fear and their
aggression levels were almost zero. Contrast
that with stimulation of the amygdala which
caused demonstrably aggressive behavior.
#4 “Explain,
using
examples, the
function of
two
hormones on
human
behavior”
1. Fisher “love studies” –
oxytocin on pair bonding
2. Melatonin on sleep
3. Testosterone
1. Biological knowledge, as well as
experiments and case studies
http://www.americanscientist.org/issues/pub/
high-on-fidelity
1. Oxytocin is released by the hypothalamus gland
during child birth and also helps the breast express milk.
It helps cement the strong bond between mother and
child. It is also released by both sexes during orgasm
and it is thought that it promotes bonding when adults
are intimate. The theory goes that the more sex a
couple has, the deeper their bond becomes
2. Biological knowledge. Experiments.
Bonding basics The mechanics behind the power of
3. Correlational Studies FIND SPECIFIC STUDY!!
attachment cues are dead simple. These familiar behaviors
(skin-to-skin contact, eye contact, affectionate touch,
nurturing, etc.) release oxytocin in a part of the brain known
as the amygdala and relax it. Without this hormone induced
ease, we don't bond. We remain on guard.
2.
In humans, melatonin is produced by the pineal gland, a
small endocrine gland[29] located in the center of the brain but
outside theblood–brain barrier. The melatonin signal forms
part of the system that regulates the sleep–wake cycle by
chemically causing drowsiness and lowering the body
temperature
Human melatonin production decreases as a person
ages.[34] Also, as children become teenagers, the nightly
schedule of melatonin release is delayed, leading to later
sleeping and waking times.[35]
3. Men are far more violent than women due to their
increased levels of testosterone. Additionally, taking
artificial testosterone has been shown to increase
aggressive and violent behavior (steroid use).
Explain, using
one or more
example, the
effect of one
neurotransmit
ter on human
behavior
a. Kazamatsu and Hirai
1999
b. Martinez and Kesner
(1991)
c. Fisher Dopamine
studies (1990s)
a. Experiment in which the researchers took
blood samples of Japanese monks prior to
them engaging in a pilgrimage up a holy
mountain. During this trip, the monks neither
ate or drank for 72 hours…the researchers also
took their blood samples at the conclusion of
the pilgrimage. Hallucinations and heightened
. What they found was that serotonin levels
were HIGHLY elevated in the monks at the
conclusion of the trip. Thus, serotonin is
correlated with perception. The behavioral
change that occurred was in regard to
perception. This can be likened to the effect
LSD has on individual perception because LSD
a.
D. dopamine and drugs.
Berridge and Kringelbach
(2009)
perceptual awareness were present during
the holy retreat.
b. Experiment. The researchers had 3 groups
of mice. All the mice were made to run
through a maze. The control group was given
nothing. Experimental group a was given a drug
that blocks reuptake of ACH, thus increasing
it’s presence in the brain. Experimental group B
was given a drug that increased the speed of
reuptake of ACH, thus decreasing it’s presence
in the brain.
c. Fisher 2004. Found that large amounts of
dopamine are released during orgasm and also
at just the SIGHT of your love interest.
d. fMRI technology has been used to study the
neural pathways involved with addiction and
researchers have discovered that dopamine
pathways in the brain are highly active during
subjective experiences of pleasure.
Discuss two
effects of the
environment
on
a. Rosenzweig and
Bennet (1972) Role of
environmental
stimulation on brain
a. Experiment. Rats placed in either enriched
environment or impoverished environment.
Spent 30-60 days in their environments.
mimics serotonin and LSD users also
experience hallucinations and heightened
perceptual awareness.
b. The researchers found that the
experimental group with the ACH reuptake
blocker ran through the maze the quickest the
second time around!! The Experimental group
given the drug to increase reuptake made the
most mistakes the second time around and
were the slowest in completing the maze. The
control group was in the middle speed and
mistake wise. Thus showing a correlation
between ACH and memory!
C. This explains why people feel “addicted” to
love. Why they have such a chemical and
profound attraction to their love interest and
why they can sink into a depression—literal
dopamine withdrawal—if they lose their love.
d. Illustrates the fact that addiction is two
fold. It can be chemical but it also is emotional
and pleasure based.
a. Results. The brains of the Enriched environment rats
had increased thickness and higher weight of the
cerebral cortex. Also developed more AcH receptors in
cortex (important for memory). Solid experiment.
Rigorously controlled lab experiment. Animal models,
physiological
processes
placiticity
b. Plasticity. Bremner et
al. (2003) Effects of
Stress, PTSD on
Hippocampal Volume
C. observational learning.
Humans learn by
watching others.
MIRROR neurons. 1991,
Rizzolatti et al. Parma
Italy.
b. MRI scans used to measure the size of
participants hippocampus. Theory was PTSD
and prolonged stress would cause a shrink in
hippocampus size, and thus decrease in
memory performance.
c. Experiment. Mirror neurons were
discovered to “mimic” behavior in brain as it’s
being observed.
d. Experiment. Gave puncture wounds to
university students. One group got them day
before summer vaction, another before finals.
D. Stress impedes healing
e. Put a cold virus into the nose of people. 47%
Kiecolt-Glaser 1998
of those living “stress filled lives” got sicks,
whereas only 27% of those living “relatively
E. Cohen et al. 2003,
stress free lives” got sick. EXPERIMENT.
2006 Stress decreases
immune response
Discuss the
use of brain
imaging
technologies
in
investigating

MRI
*Gives detailed
pictures of the
inside of body. Can
show blood flow
B. Ashtari et al. (2009)
a. Students were hooked up to fMRI machine
and show pictures of different humans or
objects. It was predicted that the prefrontal
cortex would be active when participants
looked at humans but not when they looked at
objects.
so perhaps not SO generalizable to humans.
b. Researchers found that there were deficits in shortterm memory and then performed MRI scans of the
participants’ brains. Particpants were Veterans and
female adults who had experienced early childhood
sexual abuse. Some had PTSD, but not all.
Hippocampus was indeed smaller in PTSD patients
than in a control group. Also, veterans with most
memory problems (as told via survey) had the smallest
hippocampal volume. Showed a clear correlation
between number of years of abuse as measured by
trauma test, memory problems, and hippocampus size.
c. The researchers had a monkey hooked up to an fMRI
machine and found that the same areas in his brain lit
up while watching a man reach for a banana that lit up
while the monkey himself was reaching for a banana.
This illustrates a biological basis for observational
learning as well as “mental practice.” This is also a
biological basis for empathy. As you can literally FEEL
someone’s pain as you watch them in pain.
d. The group that got the wounds three days before
final exams healed 40% more SLOWLY than those
wounded before summer vacation!!
a. This was found except when participants looked at
pictures of people from extreme outgroups such as the
homeless and addicts. Brain regrions related to
“disgust” were activated an there was no activity in the
prefrontal cortex. Thus, This indicated dehumanization
of outgroups has a biological effect. These groups were
apparently viewed as ‘disgusting objects’ and not

the
relationship
between bio
factors and
behavior.
fMRI
*Measures
changes in blood
flow in the active
brain as well as
electrical signals.
a. Harris and fiske (2006)
Examine one
evolutionary
aspect of
behavior
a. Darwin’s theory of
natural selection states
that living organisms face
environmental challenges.
Organisms that adapt the
best to these challenges
will survive to pass on
their genes to their
offspring.
b. used mri scan to investigate whether
substance abuse (marijuana) in young children
can damage a developing brain. Scanned
brains of 14 young men who had a history of
heavy marijuana use over a long period. The
control group was 14 men who did not use
marijuana.
a. theory
b. Experiment re: disgust in humans as
innate
c. Survey. Online. 77,000 participants
from 165 countries.
people. Illustrates biological explanation for mean,
crude behavior towards outgroups (holocaust, racism,
slavery etc.).
B. Results of the mri scan showed that there were brain
abnormalities in the frontal, parietal, and temporal
regions of the brains of the marijuana users. The
development of white matter (myelin) was affected and
this could explain slow information processing in the
brain. Concluded that early marijuana use can affect
brain development negatively, but this was
correlational data so more research needed.
B) Emotion of disgust allowed ancestors to
survive long enough to produce offspring, who
in turn passed sensitivities on to us.
Experiment found that Women in their first
trimester scored much higher across the board
in disgust sensitivity than their counterparts in
second and third trimesters.
C) Found that the disgust reaction was strongest for
those stimuli that have a schema associated with harm
to one’s own health or immune system.
b. Fessler on Disgust
(2006)
C. Curtis et al. (2004)
Disgust
Discuss the
extent to
a. Bouchard Minnesota
Twin Study (1979-1990)
a. correlational study. Estimated heritability of
intelligence is around 70%.
a. Overall, great study, but some concerns:
 relied on media coverage to recruit

which
genetics
influence
behavior

can’t assume reared together = same
environment, referred to as, “equal
environment assumption”
Some ethical concerns about way he reunited
the twins
Cognitive Level of Analysis
Learning Outcome
*Evaluate Schema
Theory
Name, Date
Bartlett, 1932
Procedure / Type
Experiment. Had subjects read stories that
were unfamiliar to them. I.e. Native
American Story. Had subjects try to recall
the story after hearing them.
Discuss, with reference
to relevant research
studies, the extent to
which one cognitive
process is reliable
Loftus 1974
A. Experiment. Had subjects watch a video
of a car crash. Asked them to estimate
speed at which the car was going when it:
 Contacted = 31.8
 Hit = 34
Findings
Found that subjects often substituted familiar details
for unfamiliar ones. Changed canoes to boats.
Changed seal hunting to fishing. Etc. Shows people
default to schemas for memory reconstruction.
Memory as reconstructive.
A. Informed about the profound effects leading
questions have on eyewitness testimony. Also
supported the idea that memory is actively
reconstructed. And malleable.



(memory/perception).
Loftus, 1995
Evaluate 2 models or
theories of one
cognitive process
(memory or emotion)
Bumped = 38
Collided = 39
Smashed = 40
Atkinson
model of
memory
B. Experiment with false memories. Lost
in a shopping Mall She gathered 25 college
aged students and their parents. The
parents provided information about the
test subjects’ childhood. The researchers
then prepared a booklet containing 4 short
stories from the test subject’s childhood.
One of these was false. The false one was
always presented 3rd in the booklet. A
week later. The subjects came in for
interviews. They were asked about
“remembering” the events contained in the
booklet mailed to them (they were also
asked to write written reflections on each
memory in the booklet at the time of
receiving it). 7 of the 30 subjects
“remembered” the false memory of being
lost in a shopping mall.
“Multi-store Model of Memory” MSM. 3
boxes of memory: sensory, short, and long.
AKA Sensory, Working, and Long.
Glanzer and
Cunitz 1966
a. Experiments establishing the seriel
positioning effects: Primacy and Recency
**Also, in follow up. Participants in the different
groups were asked a week later if they remembered
seeing broken glass. There was no broken glass. But
32% of those in “smash” group said there was.
B. Experiment showed that it is possible to implant
false memories through suggestion and
reinforcement of those false memories. Though only
a small percentage were able to have the false
memory implanted, it is still significant because it
shows it’s possible and actually quite easy and simple
to do so. A more concerted effort of false memory
implantation would likely yield more robust results.
a. Primacy effect is said to show that rehearsal
moves things from Short to Long term
memory.
b. HM Case study
Peterson and
Peterson, 59
b. HM illustrates that there are multiple
memory systems because he could no longer
form new explicit memories but could form
new implicit ones. So it supports a theory
that outlines different memory systems,
which the MSM does.
c. Participants given number triads.
Distracted with another task. Then asked to
recall as many triads as possible. They got
worse at it the longer they waited before
recall.
Working Memory Model: Working memory
is viewed as an active store used to hold
and manipulate information. Similar but
different. Central executive regulates:
Phonological Loop, Episodic Buffer, VisuoSpatial Sketchpad, moving things to LTM via
encoding.
Discuss how social or
cultural factors affect
one cognitive process
a. Bartlett
schema theory
see above
b. Nesbitt…fill
in
c. Veenhoven
(2009) fill in
d.
a. barlett schema theory (1936) see above
b. Nesbitt…fill in
c. Veenhoven (2012) fill in
c. Illustrated the degree to which memory is
lost from short term memory if not
rehearsed.
a. Found that subjects often substituted familiar
details for unfamiliar ones. Changed canoes to boats.
Changed seal hunting to fishing. Etc. Shows people
default to schemas for memory reconstruction.
Memory as reconstructive. Since schemas are
created via experience, and experience is rooted in
culture, culture affects the cognitive process of
memory.
b.
Explain how biological
factors affect one
cognitive process
a.HM Case
a. H.M couldn’t form new Long Term
study works
Memories LTM, but he still had short term.
for this as well. b. Lsd serotonin link
b.LSD
serotonin
relationship
Social Level of Analysis
Learning
Name, Date
Outcome
**Illustrates the role of the Hippocampus in forming
new Long Term Memories because HM couldn’t form
new long term memories.
Procedure/Type Findings
Describe the role of
situational and
dispositional factors in
explaining behavior
Suller, 2004,
“online
disinhibition
effect”
Correlational Analysis
he explored six factors that could combine to change people's behaviour
online. These are dissociative anonymity ("my actions can't be attributed to
my person"); invisibility ("nobody can tell what I look like, or judge my
tone"); asynchronicity ("my actions do not occur in real-time"); solipsistic
Introjection ("I can't see these people, I have to guess at who they are and their
intent"); dissociative imagination ("this is not the real world, these are not
real people"); and minimising authority ("there are no authority figures here,
I can act freely"). The combination of any number of these leads to people
behaving in ways they wouldn't when away from the screen, often positively -being more open, or honest -- but sometimes negatively, abusing their fellow
internet users in ways they wouldn't dream of offline.
Describe the role of
situational and
dispositional factors in
Milgrim, Stanley,
1961
Experiment
Found that people readily obeyed authority figures. Factors that contributed to
obedience were:
 Presence of authority figure
 Authority figure taking responsibility for events

explaining behavior
The more prestige (both real and perceived) the authority figure had,
the more obedience occurred.
Factor found to limit obedience was physical presence of the learner.
PERSONAL INTERACTION LEADS TO MORALITY
Describe the role of
situational and
dispositional factors in
explaining behavior
Kelly’s covariance
model of attribution
as well as Heider’s
“attribution theory”
Theory
Co-variation principle states that people attribute behavior to the factors that are
present when a behavior occurs and absent when it does not. Thus, the theory
assumes that people make causal attributions in a rational, logical fashion, and
that they assign the cause of an action to the factor that co-varies most closely
with that action.[9] Harold Kelley's covariation model of Attribution looks to three
main types of information from which to make an attribution decision about an
individual's behavior. The first is consensus information, or information on how
other people in the same situation and with the same stimulus behave. The
second is distinctive information, or how the individual responds to different stimuli.
The third is consistency information, or how frequent the individual's behavior can
be observed with similar stimulus but varied situations.
Discuss Two errors in
attribution
Lee, et al. 1977
Experiment illustrating
fundamental
attribution error.
Discuss two errors in
attribution
Lau and Russel
1980, Self Serving
Bias
Miller and Ross,
1975
Survey, illustrating Self
Serving Bias
Assigned college students to 1 of 3 positions: Game show host, audience member
or game show contestant. At the end the audience was asked to assess the
intelligence of the participants. They consistently ranked the host the smartest,
eventhough they knew the host had the more beneficial SITUATION—that of
making up the questions and thus knowing all the answers.
Found that when asked to account for reasons their American Football Team lost,
American Football coaches overwhelmingly attributed their losses to situational
factors whereas they attributed their wins to dispositional factors.
Discuss two errors in
attribution
Evaluate Social Identity
Theory
Created by Tajfel
Experiments utilizing
self reporting via survey
or interview. They
created idea of Self
Serving Bias
Theory
Self serving bias is the idea that when we expect to succeed and we do succeed,
we attribute it to dispositional factors. However when we expect to succeed and
fail, we attribute the failure to situational factors.
Assumes that individuals strive to improve their self-image by trying to enhance
their self esteem through personal achievement or through association with
successful groups.
Critiques:
Evaluate Social Identity
Theory and
Sherif et al.
“Robbers Cave”
experiment 1954
**Describes but does not accurately predict behavior
**Sometimes personal identity is stronger than group identity
**Theory in isolation is reductionist—meaning that it fails to acknowledge how the
environment interacts with the “self” such as poverty for example.
He set out to see if he could make two groups of randomly assigned 13 year old
boys dislike each other based on the principles of social identity theory. He
succeeded marvelously!! Obviously. He concluded that what increases in
group/out group animosity is competition for resources.
Experiment
Describe the role of
situational and
dispositional factors in
explaining behavior
Explain Social Learning
Theory making reference
to two relevant studies
(1)Bandura
“bobo doll
experiment”
He then wanted to know if he could make them become friends and eliminate the
previously cultivated hate. He did this by requiring them to engage in
cooperative tasks and common goals. He therefore concluded that the key to
group harmony is shared goals.
Bandura had children observe an adult “playing” in a room full of toys. In the
experimental condition however, the adult proceeded to beat up a “bobo doll”
violently. The children were then allowed into the room and encouraged to “play”
Overwhelmingly, the children who observed the adult model beat up the bobo doll
did so as well. This illustrates that observation also leads to learning—a change in
behavior. Contrast this with the control group, the kids that didn’t see an adult
model beat up the bobo doll, almost 0% of those kids treated the bobo doll in such
an abusive way.
Experiment

According to Bandura, SLT is composed of four conditions (ARRM) required for a
person to successfully model the behaviour of someone else.
o Attention

competence or power.
Retention
o

o
The person must first pay attention to the significant features of the model"s
behaviour, influenced by the model"s distinctiveness, attractiveness,
The observer must be able to store information about the model"s behaviour in
memory, in order to be able to retrieve the information later (delayed, or
"deferred imitation") or "immediate imitation" and act on, which is vital to SLT.
Reproduction (Motor)

The observer has to be able to physically and cognitively reproduce the
desired behaviour.
 Imitation and practice leads to improvement of the learnt behaviour.
o
Motivation
 In order for observational learning to be successful, learns must be able to

demonstrate the learnt behaviour that has been modelled.
The presence of reinforcement (reward) or punishment is an important
motivational factor and is an indirect form of learning, known as vicarious
reinforcement.
Explain Social Learning
Theory making reference
to 2 relevant studies
(2) Gergely
Experiment
Discuss the use of
compliance techniques
Cialdini is creator
Naturalistic observation
combined with
experiment for some of
them
Discuss the use of
compliance techniques
Aronson and Mills
(1959)
Experiment
Gergely had 14 month old children observe an adult turn on a light using their
head. In one condition, the adult had their hands flat on a table next to the light. In
another condition, the adult had their hands occupied in the task of holding a
blanket around their body. The infants that saw the adult turn the light on with
their hands occupied, were more likely to use their hands to turn on the light when
asked to do so, however the infants who saw the hands “free” condition were more
likely to use their head, because they thought it was something special about the
head. As in, the infants who saw the hands occupied, thought, “wow, they
would’ve just used their hands if they could, but they’re busy, so that adult used
their head, but my hands arent’ busy so I’ll use my hands”
This illustrated to role of rationality and logic in observational learning;
discrimination if you will. Also, that young young kids (14 month olds) do
this and perhaps even earlier!!!
1. Authority
2. Commitment
3. Liking
4. Reciprocity
5. Scarcity
6. Social Proof
HAZING. Looked at hazing as a compliance technique. Conducted an experiment
and found that women who went through an embarrassing and laborious initiation
in order to join a sex discussion group found the meeting extremely valuable,
whereas the women who didn’t go through the hazing found the meetings boring
Evaluate research on
conformity to group
norms
Asch (1951)
Experiment
Sherif 1936
Experiment
and useless, which is what they were designed to be!! Ha!
Asch Conducted an experiment whereby he had 4-6 “confederates” people in on
the study, all agree on an erroneous answer (it was in reference to line length).
The point was to see whether or not the test subject would change their answer to
the “wrong” answer as given by the confederates and thus, “conform”
He did many varitions on this and found that factors affecting conformity include:
 Group size
 Unamity
 Group to be perceived as “in group”
 Confidence
 Self Esteem
SHERIF 1936 Experiment
Had participants observe an autokinetic effect (light blinks but appears to move
due to our visual perceptual mechanics) and had participants estimate in what
direction and how frequently the light moved.
Evaluate Research on
conformity to group
norms
Festinger, 1954—
Social Comparison
Theory. Survey.
Structured interviews.
Evaluate Research on
Conformity to group
norms
Deutsch and Gerard
1955. Normative
social influence vs.
informational
social influence
Smith and Bond
Theory. Structured
interviews
Discuss factors
He then repeated the experiment with groups of 3 to 4 participants who gave
answers aloud in random order. Sherif found that participants now used each
other’s frame of references to inform their own ideas and the answers began to
converge into more or less identical estimates.
Festinger argued that people evaluate their own opinions and ideas through
Social Comparison. As in by looking at what others do. If people are doing
something different, or thinking something different from the individual, the
individual experienes COGNITIVE DISSONANCE. In order to get rid of this, you
either:
1. Conform
2. Rationalize your dissenting behavior/opinion and develop confidence.
Normative social influence = conforming so you don’t look odd. Conforming to
be a part of group. Asch Study.
Informational Social Influence = this occurs when you literally don’t know what
to do in a situation, so you do what others are doing.
Experiment
Found that conformity is less in individualist cultures and higher in
influencing Conformity
Define the term Culture
and Cultural norms
Examine the role of two
cultural dimensions on
behavior
Using examples, explain
EMIC and ETIC
1993, 1998--Conformity
Lonner (95),
Hofstede (02),
Matsumoto (04)
Cultural dimension
is: An aspect of
culture that can be
measured relative to
other cultures.
Invented by
HOFSTEDE
collectivist cultures ie. America vs. japan. Lower in America, higher in japan.
Theory
Hofstede = survey of
88,000 IBM employees
in 66 different countries.

Lonner: Common rules that regulate interactions and behavior in a group
as well as shared values and attitudes
 Hofstede: Mental Software
 Matsumoto: Dynamic system of rules, explicit and implicit, established by
groups in order to ensure their survival.
Example is: Collectivism vs. Individualism.
EMIC Studies one culture alone to understand cultural specific behaviors
ETIC looks at phenomena across cultures fo find out what could be universal in
human behavior.
Ex: Kashima – found a difference between American and Japanese attribution
styles. Americans explained their own success by dispositional attribution while
Japanese participants made situational ones.
Berry—recreated ash’s study in sierra leone and in Inuit Canada. Africans were
conformist (collectivist agricultural culture) while the inuit Canadians had much
LOWER levels of conformity (they’re often alone and need to make decisions for
themselves)
Explain formation of
stereotypes and their
effect on behavior