Chapter 2
Sociological Research Methods
Chapter Outline




Why is Sociological Research
Necessary?
The Sociological Research Process
Research Methods
Ethical Issues in
Sociological Research
Common Sense
and Sociology:
Suicide


Common sense may tell us that people who
threaten suicide will not commit suicide.
 Sociological research indicates that people
who threaten to kill themselves may attempt
suicide.
Common sense may tell us that suicide is
caused by despair or depression.
 Research suggests that suicide is sometimes
used as a means of lashing out because of
real or imagined wrongs.
Common Sense
and Sociology:
Suicide


Historically, the commonsense view of suicide
was that it was a sin, a crime, and a mental
illness.
Emile Durkheim related suicide to the issue of
cohesiveness in society.
 In Suicide, Durkheim documented his
contention that a high suicide rate was
symptomatic of large-scale societal
problems.
 His approach to research still influences
researchers.
How Much Do You Know
About Suicide?

True or False?
 In the United States, suicide occurs on
the average of one every 18 minutes.
How Much Do You Know
About Suicide?

True
 A suicide occurs on the average of
every 18 minutes in the United States.
 This differs with respect to the sex,
race/ethnicity, and age of the individual.
 Men are four times more likely to kill
themselves than are women.
How Much Do You Know
About Suicide?

True or False?
 More teenagers and young adults die
from suicide than from cancer, heart
disease, AIDS, birth defects, stroke,
pneumonia, influenza, and chronic
lung disease combined.
How Much Do You Know
About Suicide?

True.
 Suicide is a leading cause of death
among teenagers and young adults.
 It is the third leading cause of death
among young people between 15 and
24 years of age, following unintentional
injuries and homicide.
Question

Within the past 12 months, how many
people have you known personally that
have committed suicide?
GSS National Data
Region
East
Midwest
South
West
None
91.9%
86.6%
90.2%
85.7%
1 or
More
8.1%
13.4%
9.8%
14.3%
Sociology and Scientific
Evidence


Sociology involves debunking,
unmasking false ideas or opinions.
Two approaches:
 Normative
 Empirical
The Normative Approach

The normative approach uses religion,
customs, habits, traditions, and law to
answer important questions.
 It is based on beliefs about what is right
and wrong and what “ought to be” in
society.
The Empirical Approach

The empirical approach attempts to
answer questions through systematic
collection and analysis.
 This is referred to as scientific method,
and is based on the assumption that
knowledge is gained by direct,
systematic observation.
Sociology and Scientific
Standards

Two basic scientific standards must be
met:
 Scientific beliefs should be supported
by good evidence or information.
 These beliefs should be open to public
debate and critiques from other
scholars, with alternative interpretations
being considered.
Question

The scientific method is based on the
assumption that knowledge is best
gained by:
a. direct observation
b. systematic observation
c. the support of good evidence
d. the possibility for public debate
e. all of these choices
Answer: e

The scientific method is based on the
assumption that knowledge is best gained
by: direct observation, systematic
observation, the support of good
evidence and the possibility for public
debate.
Types of Empirical Studies


Descriptive studies attempt to describe social
reality or provide facts about some group,
practice, or event.
 Designed to find out what is happening to
whom, where, and when.
Explanatory studies attempt to explain cause
and effect relationships and to provide
information on why certain events do or do not
occur.
Theory and
Research Cycle



A theory is a set of logically interrelated
statements that attempts to describe, explain,
and (occasionally) predict social events.
Research is the process of systematically
collecting information for the purpose of testing
an existing theory or generating a new one.
The theory and research cycle consists of
deductive and inductive approaches.
Deductive Approach

Researcher begins with a theory and uses
research to test the theory:
1. Theories generate hypotheses.
2. Hypotheses lead to observations.
3. Observations lead to the formation of
generalizations.
4. Generalizations are used to support the
theory, to suggest modifications to it, or to
refute it.
Inductive Approach
Researcher collects information or data (facts or
evidence) and then generates theories from the
analysis of that data.
1. Specific observations suggest generalizations.
2. Generalizations produce a tentative theory.
3. The theory is tested through the formation of
hypotheses.
4. Hypotheses may provide suggestions for additional
observations.
Question

The _____ approach begins with a
theory and uses research to test the
theory.
a. inductive
b. deductive
c. quantitative
d. qualitative
Answer: b

The deductive approach begins with a
theory and uses research to test the
theory.
Theory and Research Cycle
Understanding Statistical
Data Presentations


Sociologists use statistical tables to present a
lot of information in a relatively small space.
To understand a table, follow these steps:
1. Read the title.
2. Check the source and explanatory notes.
3. Read the headings for each column and
row.
4. Examine and compare the data.
5. Draw conclusions.
U.S. Suicides, Sex And Method
Males
Females
Method
1970
2000
1970
2000
Total
16,629
23,618
6,851
5,732
Firearms
9,704
14,454
2,068
2,132
Poisoning
3,299
2,792
3,285
2,067
Hanging
/strangulation
2,422
4,733
831
955
Other
1,204
1,639
667
578
Quantitative and Qualitative
Research



Quantitative research focuses on data
that can be measured numerically
(comparing rates of suicide, for example).
Qualitative research focuses on
interpretive description rather than
statistics to analyze underlying meanings
and patterns of social relationships.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WDo7j
wikqqI
Conventional Research Model
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Select and define the research problem.
Review previous research.
Formulate the hypothesis.
Develop the research design.
Collect and analyze the data.
Draw conclusions and report the
findings.
Question

With _____research, interpretive description
(words) rather than statistics (numbers) is
used to analyze underlying meanings and
patterns of social relationships.
a. inductive
b. deductive
c. quantitative
d. qualitative
Answer: d

With qualitative research, interpretive
description (words) rather than statistics
(numbers) is used to analyze underlying
meanings and patterns of social
relationships.
Definitions



Hypothesis - a statement of the relationship
between two or more concepts.
The independent variable is presumed to
cause or determine a dependent variable.
The dependent variable is assumed to depend
on or be caused by the independent variable(s).
Definitions


In random sampling, every member of
an entire populationbeing studied has the
same chance of being selected.
In probability sampling, participants are
deliberately chosen because they have
specific characteristics, possibly including
such factors as age, sex, race/ethnicity,
and educational attainment.
Definitions


Validity is the extent to which a study or
research instrument accurately measures what
it is supposed to measure.
Reliability is the extent to which a study or
research instrument yields consistent results
when applied to different individuals at one time
or to the same individuals over time.
Hypothesized Relationships
Between Variables

Causal Relationship
Hypothesized Relationships
Between Variables

Inverse Causal Relationship
Hypothesized Relationships
Between Variables

Multiple-cause Explanation\
Question

In a medical study, lung cancer could be
the _____ variable, while smoking could
be the ______ variable.
a. dependant, independent
b. independent, dependant
c. valid, reliable
d. reliable, valid
Answer: a

In a medical study, lung cancer could be
the dependant variable, while smoking
could be the independent variable.
Question

In the book Suicide, Emile Durkheim used the
_____ as the independent variable to
determine its influence on the dependent
variable, the rate of suicide.
a. degree of social integration in society
b. proportion of mental illness in society
c. degree of the spread of hysteria in the
late 19th century
d. degree of religious participation
Answer: a

In the book Suicide, Emile Durkheim used the
degree of social integration in society as the
independent variable to determine its influence
on the dependent variable, the rate of suicide.
Qualitative Research Method
1.
2.
Researcher begins with a general
approach rather than a highly detailed
plan.
Researcher has to decide when the
literature review and theory application
should take place.
Qualitative Research Method
3.
4.
5.
The study presents a detailed view of
the topic.
Access to people or other resources that
can provide necessary data is crucial.
Appropriate research method(s) are
important for acquiring useful qualitative
data.
Research Methods:
Survey Research



Describes a population without
interviewing each individual.
Standardized questions force
respondents into categories.
Relies on self-reported information, and
some people may not be truthful.
Research Methods:
Analysis of Existing Data

Materials studied may include:
 books, diaries, poems, and graffiti
 movies, television shows,
advertisements, greeting cards
 music, art, and even garbage
Research Methods:
Field Research



Study of social life in its natural setting.
Observing and interviewing people where
they live, work, and play.
Generates observations that are best
described verbally rather than
numerically.
Approaches to Field
Research


Participant observation
 Collecting observations while part of the
activities of the group being studied.
 Action Research
Ethnography
 Detailed study of the life and activities
of a group of people over a period of
years.
Approaches to Field
Research


Case Studies - An in-depth, multifaceted
investigation of a single event, person, or social
grouping.
 A collective case study involves multiple
cases.
An unstructured interview is an extended,
open-ended interaction between an interviewer
and an interviewee.
Grounded Theory

Researchers who use grounded theory
collect and analyze data simultaneously.
 For example, after in-depth interviews
with 106 suicide attempters,
researchers in one study concluded
that half of the individuals who
attempted suicide wanted both to live
and to die at the time of their attempt.
Research Methods:
Experiments



Study the impact of certain variables on
subjects’ attitudes or behavior.
Designed to create “real-life” situations.
Used to demonstrate a cause-and-effect
relationship between variables.
Question

A university asks you to participate in an
interview asking questions about your cheating
attitudes, experiences, and behaviors. The
researchers assure complete confidentiality.
How likely are you to agree to the interview?
a. Very likely
b. Somewhat likely
c. Unsure
d. Somewhat unlikely
e. Very unlikely
Demonstrating Cause-andEffect Relationships
Three conditions must be fulfilled:
1. You must show that a correlation exists
between the two variables.
2. You must ensure that the independent
variable preceded the dependent variable.
3. You must make sure that any change in the
dependent variable was not due to an
extraneous variable—one outside the
stated hypothesis.
Correlation Versus Causation



A study might find that exposure to a suicide hot
line is associated (correlated) with a change in
attitude toward suicide.
But if some of the students who were exposed
to the hot line also received psychiatric
counseling, the counseling may be the “hidden”
cause of the observed change in attitude.
In general, correlations alone do not prove
causation.
Correlation Versus Causation

Observed Correlation
Possible Causal Explanation
Strengths and Weaknesses
of Research Methods
Research
Method
Strengths
Weaknesses
Control over
research.
Ability to isolate
Artificial
experimental
Reliance on
Experiments
factors.
volunteers or
(Laboratory,
Little time and
captive audiences.
Field, Natural)
money required.
Ethical questions of
Replication
deception.
possible, except for
natural experiments.
Strengths and Weaknesses
of Research Methods
Research
Method
Strengths
Weaknesses
Potentially forced
Useful in describing
answers
Survey
features of a large
Respondent
Research
population without
untruthfulness on
(Questionnaire,
interviewing
emotional issues
Interview,
everyone
Data that are not
Telephone
Relatively large
always “hard facts”
Survey)
samples possible
presented as such
Multivariate analysis
in statistical
possible
analyses
Strengths and Weaknesses
of Research Methods
Research
Method
Secondary
Analysis of
Existing Data
(Existing
Statistics,
Content
Analysis)
Strengths
Weaknesses
Data readily
available.
inexpensive to
collect.
Longitudinal and
comparative
studies possible.
Replication
possible.
Difficult to determine
accuracy of data.
Failure of data
gathered by others to
meet goals of current
research.
Questions of privacy
when using diaries,
other personal
documents.
Strengths and Weaknesses
of Research Methods
Research
Method
Strengths
Weaknesses
Gain insider’s view.
Field
Useful for studying
Problems
Research
behaviors in natural generalizing results.
(Participant
settings.
Nonprecise data
Observation, Longitudinal studies
measurements.
Case Study,
possible.
Inability to test
Ethnography, Documentation of
theories.
Unstructured social problems of
Difficult to make
Interview)
groups possible.
comparisons.
Forum for previously Not representative.
excluded groups.
Triangulation



Triangulation is the term used to describe the
approach of combining multiple methods in a
given study.
Triangulation refers not only to research
methods but also to multiple data sources,
investigators, and theoretical perspectives in a
study.
Multiple data sources include persons,
situations, contexts, and time.
ASA Code of Ethics
1.
2.
Disclose research findings in full and
include all possible interpretations of the
data.
Safeguard the participants’ right to
privacy and dignity while protecting them
from harm.
ASA Code of Ethics
3.
4.
Protect confidential information provided
by participants.
Acknowledge research collaboration and
disclose all financial support.
Quick Quiz
1. The unmasking of fallacies in the
everyday and official interpretations of
society is called:
a. defrauding
b. defeating
c. debunking
d. devaluing
Answer: c

The unmasking of fallacies in the
everyday and official interpretations of
society is called: debunking.
2. The approach where the researcher
collects information or data and then
generates theories from analysis of the
data is called:
a. inductive
b. deductive
c. quantitative
d. qualitative
Answer: a

The approach where the researcher
collects information or data and then
generates theories from analysis of the
data is called inductive.
3. With _____ research, the goal is
scientific objectivity, and the focus is on
data that can be measured numerically.
a. inductive
b. deductive
c. quantitative
d. qualitative
Answer: c

With quantitative research, the goal is
scientific objectivity, and the focus is on
data that can be measured numerically.
4. _____ exists when two variable are
associated more frequently than could
be expected by chance.
a. Multiple causation
b. Regression relation
c. Correlation
d. Spurious relation
Answer: c

Correlation exists when two variable
are associated more frequently than
could be expected by chance.
5. Reliability is the extent to which a study
or research instrument:
a. measures the phenomenon it is
intended to measure.
b. yields consistent results.
c. approximates a true experiment.
d. relies on other variables to preserve
validity.
Answer: b

Reliability is the extent to which a study
or research instrument yields
consistent results.
6. Validity is the extent to which a study or
research instrument:
a. accurately measures what it is
supposed to measure.
b. yields consistent results.
c. approximates a true experiment.
d. relies on other variables to preserve
validity.
Answer: a

Validity is the extent to which a study or
research instrument accurately
measures what it is supposed to
measure.