Chapter 2
Examining the Social World:
How Do We Know?
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SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Ideas Underlying Science
How do we know?
Sociology uses scientific methods to
expand knowledge of the social world
The Systematic use of theories and
research methods makes sociology much
more than guesswork or opinion
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Ideas Underlying Science
Assumptions of science
There is a real physical and social world that
can be studied systematically
The world is ordered by relations of cause
and effect
The best way to know the world is through
empirical testing, based on observed facts
Things that can’t be observed lie outside the
scope of scientific inquiry
Science should be objective, or based on
evidence rather than opinions
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Empirical Research & Social Theory
Theory & research are interdependent
Theories are statements regarding how facts
are related to each other
Sociological theories attempt to explain and make
predictions about the social world
The researcher’s choice of theory and research
method is guided by the research question
and level of social analysis
Theories tell researchers what kinds of facts to
look for
Researchers use facts to test theories
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How Sociologists Study the Social World
The research process
Planning a research study
Designing the research plan and method for
collecting data
Making sense of the data
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Planning a Study
Steps in planning a study:
1. Define the problem clearly
The question must be specific and precise
2. Find out what is already known about topic
Review existing theory and research
3. Formulate hypotheses and define variables
Hypothesis: educated guess about the relationship
between two variables, which can be tested
Variable: concept that can vary in frequency of
occurrence across persons, places, or time
Operationalizing a variable: linking the variable
concept to a specific measurement
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Planning a Study (cont.)
Research aims to find causal relationships
Ways that two variables can be related:
Correlation: variables change together
Causation: one variable causes another to change
• Independent variable (IV): the cause of change
• Dependent variable (DV): the variable that changes
• Timing: change in IV must precede change in DV
Spurious relationship: IV and DV change together due
to effects of a third variable; not a causal relationship
• Control variables help eliminate effects not related
to the hypothesis, especially spurious relationships
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Planning a Study (cont.)
Deductive reasoning:
moves from general
theories to specific
hypotheses
Inductive reasoning:
moves from specific
facts (data) to more
general theories
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Designing Research & Collecting Data
Research design is important: the value of a
study depends upon the quality of its data
Research methods depend upon the level of
analysis of the research question
Primary sociological research methods:
Surveys
Field studies
Controlled experiments
Existing sources
Triangulation
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Designing Research & Collecting Data
Survey methods
Used to gather information from many people
about how they think or what they want
Involves asking respondents a set of questions
Interviews: questions asked by phone or in person
Questionnaire: questions and responses are written
Question types
Open-ended: respondents can say what they wish
Closed-ended: respondents must choose from a set
of predetermined answers
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Designing Research & Collecting Data
Survey methods: considerations
Interviews and open-ended questions yield
in-depth information, but are time consuming
and costly
Questionnaires and closed-ended questions
provide less information, but are cheaper and
more practical
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Designing Research & Collecting Data
Field studies (observational methods)
Used to systematically observe and record
interaction in the settings where it takes place
Types of field study
Non-participant observation: observation only
Participant observation: researcher participates in
and observes activities of group being studied
Ethnography: researcher uses observation,
interviews, self-reflection, and other techniques to
pursue any data relevant to the research problem,
which may evolve over the course of the study
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Designing Research & Collecting Data
Field study: considerations
Produces qualitative data
Qualitative data: written or verbal observations,
used to interpret the meaning of something
Quantitative data: numerical, “hard” data, can be
conveyed with percentages or tables
Participant observation: potential problems
Research effects: the group being studied may be
altered by the presence of the researcher
Bias: researcher may become so involved in the
group that objectivity becomes difficult
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Designing the Research & Collecting the Data
Controlled experiments
Used as a powerful test of cause and effect
Elements of a controlled experiment
Researchers manipulate an independent variable and
determine its effects while all other variables are held constant
Experimental group: subjects who are exposed to the effects
of the independent variable
Control group: subjects not exposed to the independent
variable
After the experimental group is exposed to the variable, the
two groups are compared to determine its effects
Cannot be used to study many sociological questions, research
effects may result, and it is unethical to introduce many
variables into the laboratory
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Designing the Research & Collecting the Data
Controlled experiments: considerations
A valuable test, but:
Can’t be used for questions dealing with macrolevel phenomenon that can’t be placed in a
controlled situation
Can’t study questions involving independent
variables that might cause harm to subjects
Research effects: subjects may be affected by the
fact that they are in a laboratory setting
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Designing Research & Collecting Data
Existing sources
Existing data is used in new ways, especially if:
Data from past years is desired
Study concerns meso- or macro- level social patterns
Major types
Secondary analysis: employs data already collected
for other studies or by agencies such as the Census
Bureau or United Nations
Content analysis: systematic recording and
classification of information from written or recorded
sources, e.g. newspapers or letters
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Designing Research & Collecting Data
Existing sources: considerations
Existing data sources may be inexpensive;
research is unobtrusive and may be easy to do
Potential problems:
Data may not represent the precise population the
researcher wishes to study
Any problems with the original data will carry over
into the secondary analysis
Data does not capture the “human side” of
research questions as well as interview or
observational data
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Designing Research & Collecting Data
Triangulation (or multiple methods)
Multiple methods of data collection are used to
increase the amount of data and the accuracy
of findings
Survey methods, field study, experimentation,
and existing sources may be used in various
combinations
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Designing Research & Collecting Data
Sampling (all methods)
Sample: a small group of people who are
systematically chosen to represent the larger
population being studied
Types of samples:
Representative: accurately reflects the
population being studied, so findings can
be generalized to the population
Random: every person in the population
has an equal chance of being selected for
the sample; the most common type of
representative sample
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Analysis: Making Sense of the Data
Analyzing data
The goal is to determine relationships
between the variables
Variables must be clear
Researcher must choose most effective tools for
analyzing relationships among variables
Discussion with and criticism from other
researchers aids accuracy of analysis
Study should be replicable, or capable of being
repeated so results can be compared
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Analysis: Making Sense of the Data
Reporting conclusions
The researcher develops a report, including
Outline of project
Data analysis, which may include tables or figures
that summarize the data
Conclusions: Are hypotheses supported by data?
Interpretations and recommendations
In social science no one study can definitively
prove a hypothesis; instead, findings may
tend to support or reject a hypothesis
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Science and Uncertainty
Why do social research if conclusions
remain uncertain?
Even if we can’t reach absolute truth, we can
use social science to get as close as possible
Findings from multiple studies build a
stronger case than just one study
Policy and our understanding of society can
be based on the best knowledge available
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Science and Uncertainty
What makes social research scientific?
Commitment to testing and confirming
empirical evidence
Being convinced by evidence rather than
preconceived ideas
Integrity and objectivity in conducting and
reporting research
Continual openness to having findings reexamined and re-interpreted
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Ethical Issues in Social Research
Sociological research is bound by ethical
codes which generally require that:
Research subjects give informed consent to
participate in studies
Subjects are not harmed or put at risk
Subjects’ privacy is not invaded unnecessarily
Subjects’ private information is protected
Study findings do not cause harm
Human Subjects Review Boards at universities and
other research institutions help protect subjects
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
The Development of Sociology
Social thought before sociology: strongly
influenced by religion and philosophy
Modern sociology arose in 19th century
Europe, influenced by several conditions:
Colonialism: exposure to other cultures
Industrial Revolution & French Revolution: desire to
know how dramatic change could be systematically
explained
Advances in the natural sciences: desire to apply
scientific method to the social world
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
The Development of Sociology
August Comte & the science of society
Coined the term “sociology” in 1838
Thought society’s problems could not be
understood by philosophical or religious
speculation; scientific knowledge was needed
Two main concerns
What holds society together?
(social statics or structure)
Why is there change in society?
(social dynamics or process)
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
The Development of Sociology
Early sociology after Comte
Focus on massive social and economic
change brought by Industrial Revolution
Focus on relationship between micro-, meso-,
and macro-level processes
Early sociological theorists: Emile Durkheim,
Karl Marx, Harriet Martineau, Max Weber,
W.E.B. DuBois
Use of scientific method to test ideas
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Three Sociological Traditions
Scientific sociology focuses on pure, objective
analysis, modeled on natural science
Humanistic sociology focuses on the human
capacity to create meaning, which can’t be
captured by quantitative data
Sociology centered on improving society
Critical sociology focuses on critical thinking about
issues of social justice
Applied sociology focuses on practical ways to
bring about change
Public sociology aims to move the focus from
classrooms and labs to communities
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Sociology’s Major Theoretical Perspectives
Theoretical perspective: a basic view of
society that
Guides sociological research and analysis
Provides an overall approach to
understanding social behavior, social
systems, and relationships between them
Can be micro- or macro-level; all can be used
at the meso-level
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Micro-to-Meso Level Theories
Symbolic interaction theory
(or social construction, interpretative theory)
Main ideas:
People interact on the basis of shared symbols to
construct a meaningful world—which then serves as
a basis for further interaction.
Some emphasize agency, individuals’ active role in
constructing their social environments, or how their
social positions shape their constructions
Main criticisms:
Neglects macro-structures
Difficult to study concepts like “mind” and “self”
Key theorists: George H. Mead, the Iowa School
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Micro-to-Meso Level Theories
Rational choice theory
(or exchange theory)
Main ideas:
People act by making rational, self-interested
decisions that will maximize their rewards and
minimize costs
Main criticisms:
Neglects macro-level processes and micro-level,
internal mental processes
Cannot easily explain altruistic behavior
People do not always act rationally or accurately
assess their self-interest
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Meso- and Macro-Level Theories
Structural-functional theory
(or functional theory)
Main ideas:
Each part of society has a necessary function
Parts fit together into a stable, orderly whole
Functions may be manifest (planned) or latent
(unintended); some things may be dysfunctional
Main criticisms:
Some claims are abstract, difficult to test
Can’t easily explain social change
Assumes conflict is harmful, which isn’t always true
Assumes stability is good, ignoring inequities
Key theorists: Comte, Durkheim, Merton
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Meso- and Macro- Level Theories
Conflict theory
Main ideas:
Inequalities in resources and power create
conflict, which underlies all social relations
The powerful impose their values and beliefs on
weaker groups
Change leading to greater equality is desirable
Main criticisms:
Neglects the micro-level
Difficult to test empirically
Cannot easily explain cohesion and cooperation
Rests on assumption of self-interest
Key theorists: Marx, DuBois, Dahrendorf, Coser
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Meso- and Macro- Level Theories
Feminist sociological theory
Main ideas:
Rooted in conflict theory, symbolic interactionism
Social hierarchies disadvantage women and
advantage men
Sociology has traditionally been male dominated,
resulting in an incomplete view of the world
Main criticisms:
Theory should address the intersection of gender,
race, class, and other inequalities
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Multi-Level Analysis
Max Weber’s contributions
Main ideas
Verstehen (understanding): emphasized the
importance of interpreting the meanings people
give to their actions (micro-level)
Focused on bureaucracy guided by rationality as
key element of modern organizations (meso-level)
Examined how history has been shaped by
politics, economics, religion, psychology, and ideas
(macro-level)
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Using Different Theoretical Perspectives
No theory is right or wrong; each has
advantages and disadvantages for studying
particular levels or aspects of society.
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Putting Sociology to Work
Basic sociology (professional or academic
sociology): emphasis on scientific analysis,
theory building, knowledge production
Applied sociology (sociological practice):
uses sociology to develop practical ways of
improving society, often through policy
Public sociology: attempts to integrate
sociology into communities in order to
promote public debate and social change
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.