Sociology: Perspective, Theory,
and Method
Sociological Perspective
•
Sociology – the systematic study of
human society.
•
The sociological perspective.
1. Seeing the general in the particular
2. Seeing the strange in the familiar
3. Seeing individuality in social context
Benefits of the Sociological
Perspective
1. Helps us critically assess “commonsense”
ideas.
2. Helps us see the opportunities and constraints
in our lives.
3. Empowers us to be active participants in our
society.
4. Helps us to live in a diverse world.
The Origins of Sociology
• New science born from social forces.
-Industrial Revolution
-Growth of cities
• Political Change
-Pursuit of self-interest
Auguste Comte
• Coined the term “Sociology” in 1838
• Favored Positivism
- A way of understanding based on
science
• Society operates according to certain laws
• Discovered social principles and also
applied them to social reform
Emile Durkheim
• Emphasis on showing how social forces
impact people’s behavior
• Emphasis on thorough research
• Suicide (1897)
– Social factors underlie suicide – not simply
personal reasons
– Social integration – the degree to which
people are tied to their social group
Emile Durkheim
• Social research must be practical
-Discover causes for social ills and recommend
remedies
• Anomie
-Breaking down of the controlling
influences of society
-People become detached from society
and are left with too little moral guidance
Karl Marx
• Class conflict is the engine of human history
• Society is divided into classes who clash in
pursuit of their own class interests
• Group identifications and associations influence
an individual’s place in society
• Concept of “praxis”
-People should take active steps to change
society
-Theory and action
Max Weber
• “Verstehen” (understanding) should be used in
intellectual work
• To fully comprehend behavior, we must learn the
subjective meanings people attach to their
actions – how they themselves view and explain
their behavior
• Disagreed with Marx that economics was the
central force in change
- Felt that religion was
W.E.B. DuBois
• Worked under Max Weber
• 1st person of color to receive a doctorate
from Harvard
• Founding member of the NAACP
• Worked on race and inequality
Herbert Spencer
• Did not believe that sociology should guide
social reform
• Believed in “social Darwinism”
-Over time, societies improve
-Coined the term “Survival of the fittest”
• Did not conduct scientific studies
Robert Merton
• Social structure has many functions, some more
obvious than others
-Manifest functions – the recognized and
intended consequences of any social pattern
-Latent functions – the unrecognized and
unintended consequences of any social pattern
• Social dysfunction – any social pattern that may
disrupt the operation of society
Why Theory?
• Allows for full exploration of an issue or
problem
• 3 sociological theoretical paradigms
- Sets of assumptions that guide thinking
and research
Structural-Functionalism
• Society is a complex system whose parts
work together to promote solidarity and
stability.
- Social structure – relatively stable
patterns of social behavior
• If something does not serve a useful,
identifiable purpose, it will not be passed
from generation to generation
Social-Conflict Theory
• Sees society as an arena of inequality,
generating conflict and change
• Paradigm focuses on how society’s
institutions including family, government,
religion, education, and the media may
help to maintain the privileges of some
groups and keep others in subservient
positions
• Looks to who benefits and who suffers
Symbolic-Interactionism
• Sees society as the product of the
everyday interactions of individuals
• Micro-level orientation
• Humans live in a world of meaningful
objects – symbols
How Sociology is studied
• Science – a logical system that bases
knowledge on empirical evidence
• Scientific method
- Systematic, organized series of steps
that ensures maximum objectivity and
consistency in researching a problem
Step 1- Defining the Problem
• State as clearly as possible what you hope
to investigate
Step 2 – Review the Literature
• See what other people have already
written about the issue
Step 3 – Formulate Hypothesis
• Hypothesis – A speculative relationship
between 2 or more factors
• Variables – concepts whose value
changes from case to case
- Independent variable – the variable that
influences other variables
- Dependent variable – the variable that
“depends” on the influence of the
independent variable
Step 3 - Formulate Hypothesis
• Measurement – the process of
determining the value of a variable in a
specific case
-Reliability – consistency in measurement
-Validity – precision in measuring exactly
what one intends to measure
Step 4 – Selecting Research Design
• Detailed plan for obtaining data
scientifically
• Survey research – a study which provides
info on how people think and act
- Interview
- Questionnaire
Step 4 – Selecting Research Design
• Samples
- Representative – a selection from the
larger population that is statistically typical
- Random – everyone in the population
has the same chance of being selected
Step 4 – Selecting Research Design
• Existing sources
• Observation – watching individual behavior
• Experiment – specific design to produce
expected results
- Experiment group – exposed to the
independent variable
- Control group – not exposed to the
independent variable
Step 5 – Developing the
Conclusion
• May or may not support hypothesis
• Serves as basis for further research