Mata kuliah : A0012 – Manajemen Umum
Tahun
: 2010
Session 8
LEADERSHIP
Learning Objectives
• After studying Chapter 12, you will know:
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–
–
–
–
–
–
12-2
what it means to be a leader
how a good vision helps you be a better leader
how to understand and use power
the personal traits and skills of effective leaders
the behaviors that will make you a better leader
what it means to be a charismatic and transformational leader
how to further your own leadership development
Vision
• Vision
– a mental image of a possible and desirable future state of the organization
– having a vision and communicating it to others are essential components of great leadership
– the best visions are both:
• ideal - communicates a standard of excellence and clear choice of positive
values
• unique - communicates and inspires pride in being different from other
organizations
– can exist throughout all organizational levels
– visions can be inappropriate
12-3
Leading And Managing
• Ability to lead effectively sets excellent managers apart from average ones
– managers deal with ongoing organizational activities
• planning and budgeting routines, structuring the organization
– leadership includes orchestrating organizational change
• creating a vision for the firm and inspiring people to attain it
– management and leadership are both vitally important
– supervisory leadership - provides guidance, support, and corrective feedback for day-to-day
activities of work unit members
– strategic leadership - gives purpose and meaning to organizations
12-4
Leading And Following
• Organizations succeed or fail because of how well followers follow
– effective followers:
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•
•
•
•
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are capable of independent thinking
are actively committed to organizational goals
are enthusiastic about ideas and purposes beyond their own self interest
master skills that are useful to the organization
hold performance standards that are higher than required
Power And Leadership
• Power
– ability to influence other people
• Sources of power
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legitimate power - leader has organizational authority
reward power - leader has control over valued rewards
coercive power - leader has control over punishments
referent power - leader has personal characteristics that appeal to others and make them
desirous of the leader’s approval
– expert power - leader has knowledge that others feel will be of benefit to them
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Sources Of Power
Authority
Control over
rewards
Expertise
Power
Appealing
personal
characteristics
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Control over
punishments
Traditional Approaches To Understanding Leadership
• Leader traits
– trait approach - focussed on individual leaders to determine the personal characteristics that
great leaders share
– characteristics that distinguish effective leaders
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•
•
•
drive - characteristics that reflect a high level of effort
leadership motivation - desire to lead
integrity - actions correspond to words
self-confidence - expectation that one is able to overcome obstacles and
make good decisions in the face of uncertainty
• knowledge of the business - ability to interpret information
• ability to perceive the needs of others and to adjust one’s behavior
accordingly
12-8
Traditional Approaches To Understanding Leadership (cont.)
• Leader behaviors
– behavioral approach - sought to identify what behaviors good leaders exhibit
– Task performance - leader’s efforts to ensure that the work unit reaches its goals
• focus on work speed, quality and quantity of output, and rules
– Group maintenance - ensure the satisfaction of group members
• develop and maintain harmonious work relationships
• Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) theory - focuses on the leader’s
behavior toward individuals
– maintenance behaviors
12-9
Traditional Approaches To Understanding Leadership (cont.)
• Leader behaviors (cont.)
– Participation in decision making - leader behaviors that managers perform in involving their
employees in making decisions
• autocratic leadership - makes decisions and then announces them to the
group
• democratic leadership - solicits input from others
– uses consensus or majority vote to make the final choice
12-10
Traditional Approaches To Understanding Leadership (cont.)
• Leader behaviors (cont.)
– The effects of leader behavior
• decision styles - characteristics of the situation, leader, and the follower
determine the appropriate decision-making style
– laissez-faire - leadership philosophy characterized by an absence of managerial decision making
• performance and maintenance behavior - are independent of each other
– Ohio State studies - grievances and turnover
» were lower when supervisor was high on maintenance behavior
» were higher when supervisor was high on task performance behavior
» when leader must be high on performance-oriented behavior, s/he should also be maintenanceoriented
12-11
Traditional Approaches To Understanding Leadership (cont.)
• Leader behaviors (cont.)
– The effects of leader behavior (cont.)
• performance and maintenance behavior (cont.)
– Michigan studies - most effective managers were task oriented
» effective managers also were relationship oriented
– taken together, Ohio State and Michigan research suggested that the ideal leader is always both
performance and maintenance oriented
– Blake and Mouton’s Leadership Grid
» described a wide range of leadership styles
» recommended a 9,9 style that is high on concern for people and high on concern for production
» ignores the effect of the situation
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The Leadership Grid
High
Country Club
Management
(1,9)
Team
Management
(9,9)
Middle of the Road
Management
(5,5)
Low
Impoverished
Management
(1,1)
1
Low
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2
3
4
AuthorityCompliance
(9,1)
5
6
7
Concern for Production
8
High
9
Traditional Approaches To Understanding Leadership (cont.)
• Situational approaches to leadership
– leadership perspective proposing that universally important traits and behaviors do not exist,
and that effective leadership behavior varies from situation to situation
• requires the leader to first analyze the situation and then decide what to
do
– Tannenbaum and Schmidt - three factors must be considered
– forces in the manager
– forces in the subordinate
– forces in the situation
• arguments remain valid today
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Traditional Approaches To Understanding Leadership (cont.)
• Situational approaches to leadership (cont.)
– Vroom-Yetton-Jago model - focuses on how leaders go about making decisions
• seven situational factors used to analyze problems
– each based on a problem attribute
– scored as either high or low
• answering a series of questions about the problem attributes leads one to
14 possible endpoints of the analysis
– each endpoint recommends one of five decision styles
– decision styles indicate that there are several shades of participation
• use of model ensures that important situational factors are considered
12-15
Vroom’s Situational Factors For Problem Analysis
DECISION SIGNIFICANCE
IMPORTANCE OF
COMMITMENT
LEADER’S EXPERTISE
LIKELIHOOD OF
COMMITMENT
GROUP SUPPORT FOR
OBJECTIVES
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The significance of the decision to the success
of the project or organization
The importance of team members’ commitmen
to the decision
Your knowledge or expertise in relation to this
problem
The likelihood that the team would commit itse
to a decision that you might make on your own
The degree to which the team supports the
organization’s objectives at stake in this proble
GROUP EXPERTISE
Team members’ knowledge or expertise in
relation to this problem
TEAM COMPETENCE
The ability of team members to work together
in solving problems
Figure 12.3
The Vroom-Yetton-Jago model
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Figure 12.3
The Vroom-Yetton-Jago model
Instructions: The Matrix operates like
a funnel. You start at the left with a
specific decisions problem in mind.
The column headings denote
situational factors which may or may
not be present in that problem. You
progress by selecting High or Low (H
or L) for each relevant situational
factor. Proceed down from the funnel,
judging only those situational factors
for which a judgment is called for, until
you reach the recommended process.
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Vroom’s Leader Decision Styles
Decide
0
Consult
Individually
3
Consult Group
5
Facilitate
7
Delegate
10
Area of freedom
for subordinates
Use of authority
by manager
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Traditional Approaches To Understanding Leadership (cont.)
• Situational approaches to leadership (cont.)
– Path-goal theory - concerns how leaders influence subordinates’ perceptions of their work
goals and the paths they follow toward attainment of those goals
• factors that determine appropriate leader behavior include:
– personal characteristics of the followers
» authoritarianism
» locus of control
» ability
– environmental pressures with which followers must cope
» people’s tasks
» formal authority system of the organization
» primary work group
12-20
The Path-Goal Framework
Characteristics
of followers
Appropriateness of
1. Directive,
determine 2. Supportive,
leading to Followers’
goals and
3. Participative, or
performance
4. Achievement
leader behaviors
Environmental
factors
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Traditional Approaches To Understanding Leadership (cont.)
• Situational approaches to leadership (cont.)
– Substitutes for leadership - factors in the workplace that can exert the same influence on
employees that leaders would provide
• certain follower, task, and organizational factors are substitutes for task
performance-oriented and group maintenance-oriented leader behaviors
• practical implication of this idea
– create situations in which substitutes for leadership operate
– leader will require less time in attempts to influence people
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Traditional Approaches To Understanding Leadership (cont.)
• Situational approaches to leadership (cont.)
– Path-goal theory (cont.)
• four pertinent leadership behaviors
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directive leadership
supportive leadership
participative leadership
achievement-oriented leadership
• theory suggests that the leader should:
– make the path to work goals easier to travel by providing coaching and direction
– reduce frustrating barriers to goal attainment
– increase opportunities for personal satisfaction by increasing payoffs to people for achieving performance
goals
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Contemporary Perspectives On Leadership
• Charismatic leadership
– dominant and exceptionally self-confident, and have a strong conviction in the moral
righteousness of their beliefs
– articulates ideological goals
– inspire their followers trust, confidence, acceptance, obedience, emotional involvement,
affection, admiration, and higher performance
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Contemporary Perspectives On Leadership (cont.)
• Transactional leadership
– traditional management through business transactions in which leaders use their legitimate,
reward, and coercive powers to give commands and exchange rewards for services rendered
– dispassionate leadership that does not inspire people to focus on the interests of the
organization
• Transformational leadership
– moves beyond transactional leadership
– a leader who transforms a vision into reality and motivates people to transcend their personal
interests for the good of the group
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Contemporary Perspectives On Leadership (cont.)
• Transformational leadership (cont.)
– Generating excitement - three ways
• they are charismatic
• provide individualized attention
• they are intellectually stimulating
– Skills and strategies - rely on four
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•
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have a vision
communicate their vision
build trust
have a positive self-regard
– Transforming leaders - training available to stimulate transformational leadership
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Contemporary Perspectives On Leadership (cont.)
• Post-heroic leadership
– even great top executives can’t solve all problems on their own
– effective leadership must permeate the organization
• leader must spread leadership abilities throughout the firm
• make heroes out of those who figure out what needs to be done and then
do it
• A note on courage
– need courage to:
• create and execute a vision
• take reasonable risks
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Classic Contingency Models Of Leadership
• Fiedler’s contingency model
– leader effectiveness depends on two factors
• the personal style of the leader
– task-motivated - primary emphasis on completing the task
» low Least Preferred Coworker (LPC)
– relationship-motivated - emphasizes maintaining good interpersonal relationships
» high LPC
• degree to which the situation gives the leader power, control, and
influence over the situation
– different situations dictate different leadership styles
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Fiedler’s Analysis Of Situations
Leadermember
relations
Good
Task
structure
Structured
Unstructured Structured
Unstructured
Leader
position
power
High
High
High
Favorable
for leader
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Most
effective
leader
in the
situation
Poor
Low
Low
High
Low
Low
Unfavorable
for leader
Relation- Relation- Relation- RelationTaskTaskTaskTaskshipshipshipshipmotivated motivated motivated
motivated
motivated motivated motivated motivated
Classic Contingency Models Of Leadership (cont.)
• Hersey and Blanchard’s situational theory
– manager should consider an employee’s psychological and job maturity
• job maturity - level of the follower’s skills and technical knowledge relative
to the task performed
• psychological maturity - follower’s self-confidence and self-respect
– determines the degree to which task performance or maintenance behaviors are important
• maintenance behaviors are not important with followers of low or high
levels of maturity
• performance behaviors important for followers with low maturity
12-30