NTS 501 NT INTRO AND
SURVEY
Class I: Introduction to the study of NT &
socio-historical background of the NT
Test-your-knowledge in NT
How many books are in the New Testament?
2.
What does the title New Testament mean?
3.
Which book of NT was written first/last?
4.
Which were written first – gospels or Paul’s letters?
5.
Which gospel was written first/last?
6.
Approximate time-span of NT history?
7.
Who wrote the book of Hebrews?
8.
What is the message of John’s letters?
9.
What year was Jesus born? died?
10. How many missionary journeys did Paul make?
1.
The Bible and Today’s World
• Bible the all time best seller
• Lack of bibles in the Third World
• Bible smuggling
• Dangerous & controversial book
• Banned for its revolutionary content
• Force for good or for bad?
Why the Bible?
• Some Foundational questions:
• Why did God give us a book?
• How to understand Scripture?
Why Study the New Testament?
• Historical reasons - birth of Christianity
• Cultural reason
• Western civilization
• Theological reason
• Know who God is!
Why Study the New Testament?
• Mediates God’s presence
• Mediates God’s Truth
• Ultimate significance
• Meaning
• Mirror
• Perspective
Why Study the New Testament?
• To avoid misguided understanding of the Bible
• Personal bias
• Community bias
• ‘Spiritual’ bias
Why Study the New Testament?
• Bible has been used to justify:
• Slavery
• Colonialism
• Inferiority of women
• Other types of violence
‘when the Spaniards arrived, they told us to close our eyes to pray.
When we opened our eyes, we had their Bible and they had our land’
Popular Guatemalan saying
Why Study the New Testament?
• Paul’s charge:
15
Do your best to present yourself to God as one approved, a worker
who does not need to be ashamed and who correctly handles the
word of truth.
• We have a great responsibility!
• Cf. James 3:1
Why Study the New Testament?
• Present state of evangelical churches:
• Biblical illiteracy
• Selective knowledge & proof texting
• Distorted views
• Prosperity ‘gospel’
• American ‘feel good’ religion
• Lack of balance
Why Study the New Testament?
New Testament Canon
Canon of Scripture – why these 27 books?
• Historical processes and theology
• Creation vs. recognition of inspired writings
From intra-canonical references to Canon of NT
• God’ Spirit guided the historical process (John 14:25-26):
• Paul & God’s words Gal 1:12, 1 Thess 2:13; cf. 1Cor 7:10-12
• God breathed the Scripture (2 Tim 3:16)
• “Men were moved by the Holy Spirit” 2 Pet 1:21
• Steps toward Canon within the NT
• graphe [c. 50x in NT] in1 Tim 5:18 [Deut 25:4 & Luke 10:7]
• 2 Pet 3:15-16 – Paul and “the rest of the Scripture”
New Testament Canon
• Some post-apostolic developments
• Sample of 2nd century church fathers:
• Ep.Bar 4:14 [c. AD 120] “written…many…called, few chosen” Mt 22:14
• 1-2 Clement “and another Scripture says, I have not come to call…”
• Polycarp cited c. 15 NT books (Pol.Phil 12.1//Eph 4:26)
• Hints of early canon:
• Four-fold gospel canon:
• Irenaeus (Ag.Her 3.11.8) – one gospel but four gospel writings
• Justin Martyr (1 Apol. 67) – “memoirs of the apostles”
• Manuscript evidence – four-fold gospel codex by end of 2nd century
• Uniform gospel titles
New Testament Canon
• Paul’s letters – reference to the collection in 2 Pet 3:16?
• 1 Cl 47:3 “Paul…under the inspiration of the Spirit”
• Marcion edited an existing collection of Paul’s letters?
• Collection of letters in the ancient world – Cicero Att. 1.17; 3:9; Ign Pol
13:1
• 2 Tim 4:13 “parchments” [Gr. membrana]
• Muratorian canon c. AD 170
• Response to Marcion’s edited “canon”
New Testament Canon
• Disputed books:
• West: Hebrews; James; 2 Pet; 3 John; Jude
• East: James; 2 Pet; 2-3 John; Jude; Revelation
• Doubtful: Wisd; Acts of Paul; Shepherd of Hermas; Epist. Barn etc.
• Spurious books: Gospel of Thomas; Gospel of Truth; 3 Corinthians etc.
• Final closing of the canon:
• AD 363 (Council of Laodicea), 393 (Hippo), 397 (Carthage)
• Athanasius – Easter letter AD 367
• Syrian Pehitta and Philonexian revision (c. AD 500)
New Testament Canon
• Criteria for canonization:
• Apostolicity – limitation of time
• Rule of faith (Regula fidei) – doctrine
• Catholicity – Universality/Wide usage
 Church did not create the Bible but recognized the divine books
that were inspired!
New Testament Canon
 Preservation of the New Testament
 Issue of transmission
 Originals do not exist – only copies
Original  copy  copy of copies…  our NT
 Manuscript = handwritten copy of an ancient writing
New Testament Canon
NT- the most well preserved ancient document!
• Greek MSS
• Over 6000 – papyrus and codex; uncials and minuscule
• Most important manuscripts:
• P 52 (John 18) – c. AD 125
• P 46 (Paul’s epistles except pastorals)
2nd century
• Codex Sinaiticus – entire NT
(c. AD 350)
• Codex Vaticanus, Alexandricus,
Ephraemi, Bezae (4th-5th century)
New Testament Intro
Basic Arrangement of NT Books
• The Four Gospels – life of Jesus
• Acts – expansion of church
• NT Letters – explain the theological significance and gives practical
exhortations
New Testament Intro
• Continuity with the OT
• OT is open ended:
•
“See, I will send the prophet Elijah to you before that great and dreadful
day of the LORD comes. 6 He will turn the hearts of the parents to their
children, and the hearts of the children to their parents; or else I will come
and strike the land with total destruction.” Malachi 4:5-6
5
• NT as the fulfillment of Jer 31:31-34
• Promise-fulfillment
 NT cannot be understood without OT background
New Testament Intro
• Different ways of reading the Bible:
• Devotional reading
• Historical reading
• Literary reading
• Socio-political reading (many variations)
• Feminist reading
• Historical-theological reading
Gospels in Context
1.1 Why Study the Background of the Gospels?
• Historical particularity of all NT writings
• History – real space and time
• First century Jewish culture – customs, beliefs, rituals
• NT contains 27 separate document
• Most address a particular situation in a specific location
• Very few are general in nature
Gospels in Context
• Particularity and universality
• God speaks FIRST to a particular situation
• God’s Word speaks in general terms
• God speaks to particular situation
Gospels in Context
1.2 The Land of Israel - Geography
Gospels in Context
Gospels in Context
Gospels in Context
•;
Gospels in Context
1.3 The Historical Setting of Christianity
1.3.1 From OT to Alexander the Great
 Babylonian exile and restoration under Cyrus
 Greek empire & Alexander
the Great
 Alexander’s death 323 BC
(32yrs. old)
Gospels in Context
• Seleucid empire
• Antioch - Syria
• Seleucid rulers
Antiochus Epiphanes IV
• Ptolemaic empire
• Alexandria – Egypt
• Last of Plotemies
Cleopatra (d. 30 BC)
Both wanted to control and
rule Israel!
Gospels in Context
• Israel ruled by the Ptolemies 320-198 bc
• LXX translated
• Antiochus III seized Palestine 198 bc
• Antiochus IV 175-163 bc
• Forced Hellenism
• Jewish customs forbidden
• Persecution of the Jews
Gospels in Context
• Offence and atrocities of Antiochus IV:
• Race track, gymnasium, theater to Jerusalem (2 Macc 4:7-13)
• Greek dress and names
• Epispasm
• High priesthood for highest bidder
• Judaism outlawed 168 bc
• Altar to Zeus in Jerusalem
Temple in 167 bc
• Capital offence to practice Sabbath
• Swine offered on the altar
Gospels in Context
Then the king wrote to his whole kingdom that all should be one
people, [42] and that each should give up his customs. [43] All the
Gentiles accepted the command of the king. Many even from Israel
gladly adopted his religion; they sacrificed to idols and profaned the
sabbath. [44] And the king sent letters by messengers to Jerusalem
and the cities of Judah; he directed them to follow customs strange
to the land, [45] to forbid burnt offerings and sacrifices and drink
offerings in the sanctuary, to profane sabbaths and feasts, [46] to
defile the sanctuary and the priests, [47] to build altars and sacred
precincts and shrines for idols, to sacrifice swine and unclean
animals, [48] and to leave their sons uncircumcised. They were to
make themselves abominable by everything unclean and profane,
[49] so that they should forget the law and change all the
ordinances. [50] "And whoever does not obey the command of the
king shall die."
1 Macc 1:41-50
Gospels in Context
 Reactions of the Jews – Maccabean Period:
 Mattathias slays a ‘luke warm’ Jew and king’s representative
 Guerilla warfare – Judas, Eleazar, Jonathan , Simon
 Hasmonean dynasty and the Hasidim
 Temple mount cleansed 164 bc
Hanukkah (Jh 10:22)
 Peace in the land during Simon (142-134 bc)
Received high priesthood for perpetuity
Gospels in Context
• Independence of the Jews 142-64 bc
• In the one hundred and seventieth year the yoke of the Gentiles was
removed from Israel, [42] and the people began to write in their documents
and contracts, "In the first year of Simon the great high priest and
commander and leader of the Jews."
1Mac 13:41-42
Gospels in Context
• John Hyrcanus I (135-104 bc) – falling out w/ Pharisees (Ant 13.296)
• Expansion to Moab and Idumea
• Aristobulus I (104-103 bc) – self-proclaimed king
• Conquered Galilee (Ant 13.301-17)
• Alexander Janneus (103-76 bc) – ruthless despot (Ant. 13.13.5)
• Queen Alexandra (76-67 bc) – Pharisees ruled
• Hyrcanus II & Aristobulus II (power struggle 67-63 bc)
 Roman conquest by Pompey in 63 bc
Gospels in Context
• Roman Domination
• Hyrcanus II became the high priest
• Deposed and humiliated by the Parthians
• Antigonus II as the high priest (40-37 bc)
• Bit off Hyrcanus’ ears – disqualified for high priesthood
(War 1.270)
• Herod the Great – King of the Judea [Jews] (37-4 bc)
Gospels in Context
21 Behold, O Lord, and raise up unto them their king, the son of David, at
the time known to you, O God, in order that he may reign over Israel your
servant. 22 And gird him with strength, that he may shatter unrighteous
rulers, and that he may purge Jerusalem from gentiles who trample (her)
down to destruction. 23 Wisely, righteously he shall thrust out sinners from
(the) inheritance; he shall destroy the arrogance of the sinner as a potter's
jar. 24 With a rod of iron he shall shatter all their substance; he shall
destroy the godless nations with the word of his mouth. 25 At his rebuke
nations shall flee before him, and he shall reprove sinners for the thoughts
of their heart. 26 And he shall gather together a holy people, whom he
shall lead in righteousness, and he shall judge the tribes of the people who
has been made holy by the Lord his God.
Psalms of Solomon 17:21-26
Gospels in Context
Herod the Great (37-4 bc)
• “A man he was of great barbarity towards all men equally, and a slave
to his passion” (Ant. 17.8.1)
• Large building projects (Temple, Caesarea Maritima etc.)
• Political prudence
• Cruel and ruthless (Matt 2:16-17)
• Paranoid in later life
Gospels in Context
• Rule of Herod’s Descendants 4 B.C.–A.D. 66
• Archelaus (Judea) 4 B.C.–A.D. 6
• Philip (Gaulanitis, Batanea, Trachonit) 4 B.C.–A.D. 34
• Antipas (Galilee, Perea) 4 B.C.–A.D. 39
• Agrippa I (cf. Acts 12:1, Ant 18.7-19.8-9) A.D. 37–A.D. 44
• Agrippa II A.D. 44–A.D. 66 (Acts 25:13-26:32; Ant. 20.7-8)
• Jewish War and Destruction of Jerusalem A.D. 66–70
Gospels in Context
• Jewish War
• Bad procurators AD 44-66
• Rebellions
• Unfair taxes
• Bandits
• Political turmoil
• Brutal treatment of people
• Corrupt priests
• Factionalism
Gospels in Context
2. And at this time it was that some of those that principally excited the
people to go to war made an assault upon a certain fortress called
Masada. They took it by treachery, and slew the Romans that were there,
and put others of their own party to keep it. At the same time Eleazar, the
son of Ananias the high priest, a very bold youth, who was at that time
governor of the temple, persuaded those that officiated in the Divine
service to receive no gift or sacrifice for any foreigner. And this was the
true beginning of our war with the Romans; for they rejected the sacrifice
of Caesar on this account; and when many of the high priests and principal
men besought them not to omit the sacrifice, which it was customary for
them to offer for their princes, they would not be prevailed upon. These
relied much upon their multitude, for the most flourishing part of the
innovators assisted them; but they had the chief regard to Eleazar, the
governor of the temple. Ant. 2.17.2
Gospels in Context
• Jerusalem destroyed in AD 70
•
“When you see Jerusalem being surrounded by armies, you will know
that its desolation is near. 21 Then let those who are in Judea flee to the
mountains, let those in the city get out, and let those in the country not
enter the city. 22 For this is the time of punishment in fulfillment of all that
has been written. 23 How dreadful it will be in those days for pregnant
women and nursing mothers! There will be great distress in the land and
wrath against this people. 24 They will fall by the sword and will be taken as
prisoners to all the nations. Jerusalem will be trampled on by the Gentiles
until the times of the Gentiles are fulfilled. Luke 21:20-24
20
Gospels in Context
• Florus the governor ignited the Revolt by raiding the Temple
treasury
• Jewish war and destruction of the Temple 66-70 A.D.
• Sacrifices ceased
• Last rebels committed suicide in Masada
• Bar Kochba revolt 132-135 A.D. crushed by Romans
 Jerusalem rebuilt as a Roman city (Jews banned).
Gospels in Context
1.4 Jewish Religion in Jesus’ day
• Judaism or Judaisms
• Various groups, practices, and beliefs
• Way of life – not doctrine
• Unifying factors
• Distinctions between groups
Gospels in Context
1.4.1 Unifying factors in Judaism
• Election and covenant
• Torah
• Monotheism
• Holy Land
• Temple
Gospels in Context
• Synagogue
• Messianic fervor
• Ps.Sol 17:21-26
• 1QS 9:11
• Priesthood
• Festivals
Gospels in Context
1.4.2 Religious Groups
• Pharisees
• Sadducees
• Essenes
• CD 11:13
• Zealots
• “No Lord but God”
• Apocalyptic moments
• 1 Enoch and 4 Ezra
Gospels in Context
• Am ha-Aretz
• Herodians (Matt 22:16; Mark 3:6, 12:13)
• Samaritans (Ant. 13.9.1, 18.2.2, 20.6.1-3)
• “Two nations my soul detests, and the third is not even a people : Those
who live in Seir [=Edom], and the Philistines, and the foolish people that
live in Shechem. [=Samaria]”
Gospels in Context
1.4.3 The Literature of the Jews
• Old Testament
• OT Apocrypha
• Pseudepigrapha
• Dead Sea Scrolls
• Rabbinic Writings
• Mishnah, Talmuds, Gemara (=comments on Mishnah)
Gospels in Context
• Aramaic Targums
• Midrash
• Tosefta (= supplement to Mishnah)
• Writings of Josephus
• Writings of Philo
Gospels in Context
1.5 Social Class and Family
1.5.1 Two Classes: Elite and Non-elite
• Elite:
• Ruler
• Governing classes
 Tiny minority (2% or less)
• Retainers
Gospels in Context
• Non-elite:
• Merchants
• Peasants
• Artisans
• Unclean & degraded
(despised and dangerous trades)
• Expendables (beggars, thieves, unemployed)
Gospels in Context
• Slavery
• not racially based
• Born slaves; debt slavery; voluntary slavery
• Tasks - good to terrible (sexual abuse)
• Sacral manumission (bought freedom in the name of a
god)
Gospels in Context
1.5.2 Family
• Family - the basic building block of society
• Extended families the norm
• Pater familias (oldest male of the house-hold)
• Endogamy & exogamy
• Name according to father, religious/political, town.
 John the son of Zebedee, Simon the Zealot, Simon of
Cyrenee/ the tanner etc.
Gospels in Context
1.5.3 Cultural Factor: Honor and Shame
• Shame = one’s concern for honor
 to lack concern was to be shameless.
• Honor (=status) consisted of one’s:
• Public recognition
• Ascribed honor
• Ancestry, gender
• Acquired honor
• Benevolence, heroism, athletics, politics/religion
Gospels in Context
1.5.4 Patrons and Clients
• Patron-client relations – essential socio-economic arrangement
of the ancient world
• Patron = ‘provider’; Client = ‘receiver of benefit’;
• broker= intermediary
• gods – emperor – aristocrats – provincial elite – common people
• Corruption and exploitation or socio-economic fact of life?
• Language of patronage
• Benefaction, honor/glory, grace/favor
• The kings of the gentiles lord it over them; and those in authority over them
are called benefactors…not so among you. (Luke 22:25)
• Lk 7:1-10; 16:1-10; 14:12-14
• Christian usage: God-Jesus-people
The World of Earliest Christians
1.1 Roman Empire
 World power centered around the Mediterranean
 Greco-Roman world
Military, administration, order – Rome
Culture, literature, science - Greece
 Military might
 Romanization - Pax Romana
Subjugation and oppression
Benefits and order
Virgil: —"Roman, remember by your strength to rule the Earth's peoples!"
The World of Earliest Christians
1.1.1 Roman Emperors
• Julius Caesar (101-44 B.C.)
• Octavian Augustus (27 B.C.- 14 A.D.)
• Jesus was born (6 B.C. ?) – Lk 2:1
• Inaugurated Pax Romana
• Initiated Emperor worship
• Tiberius (14-37 A.D.)
• Ministry of Jesus (Lk 3:1)
• ‘render to Caesar…render to God’ Mt 22:21
The World of Earliest Christians
• Caligula (37-41 A.D.)
• Demanded worship
• "Let them hate me, so long as they fear me”
• Ordered to set up his statue in Temple (Ant. 18.8)
• Claudius (41-54 A.D.)
• expelled Jews from Rome for civil disturbances (Acts 18:2)
• Nero (54-68 A.D.)
• Fire of Rome
• Persecuted Christians in Rome
• Peter and Paul martyred
The World of Earliest Christians
• Galba (AD 68) – Otho (AD 69) – Vitellus (AD 69)
• Vespasian (69-79)
• Jewish revolt
• Titus (79-81)
• Destruction of Jerusalem Temple
• Revelation?
• Domitian (81-96)
• Persecution & Revelation?
The World of Earliest Christians
2.1 Secular & Religious Setting of the Empire
2.1.1 Demographics, language, transportation
• 2-3 million Jews in Palestine
• Diaspora Jews in Alexandria, Rome, Syria etc.
• Languages
• Latin (legal)
• Greek (everyday)
• Aramaic (Acts 22:2) & little Hebrew
• Literacy 5-60% [10% rural; 30% cities]
• What does literacy mean?
The World of Earliest Christians
• Palestine was backward and underdeveloped
• Poor roads in Palestine
• Good roads in many parts
of the Empire
• Foot, donkey, horse, carriage and mule
• Waterways (ships) cf. Paul’s shipwreck Acts 27-28
• Hospitality & inns & tourism
The World of Earliest Christians
2.1.2 Greco-Roman Religions
- Numerous religions & cults – religious pluralism
- Religious life was in the state of flux
- Old ways and ideologies challenged & outmoded
- New religions and cults were popular
- Pluralism & conflicting truth claims
- Sacrifices and veneration of ancestors
The World of Earliest Christians
(a) Greek Mythology
- Classic pantheon (Zeus, Hermes, Poseidon etc.)
- Greek gods had lost much of their appeal by 1st A.D.
- Greek gods too human: fought, quarreled, schemed
- Lip service to gods: prayer for good luck
The World of Earliest Christians
• Greek gods still prominent in rural areas
• shrines dedicated to particular gods
• Acts 14:8-20; Paul=Hermes, Barnabas=Zeus
• Gods appeared in dreams and oracles
• the oracle at Delphi consulted by pilgrims for guidance.
• Artemis of Ephesus (Acts 19:23-41)
The World of Earliest Christians
(b) Emperor Worship
• Rome incorporated the Greek pantheon
• Zeus=Jupiter; Venus=Aphrodite etc.
• Kings as divine in the East
• Senate started deifying
emperors after death
The World of Earliest Christians
• Julius Caesar deified (27 B.C.) by Augustus
• Augustus became ‘son of god’
• His ‘spirit’ not physical presence was worshipped
• Caligula, Nero, Domitian claimed divinity
• Caligula demanded worship of his physical presence
• Domitian: emperor worship on large scale
• Persecution of Christians (no worship or incense)
• Judaism - religio licita
The World of Earliest Christians
(c) Mystery Religions
• Variety of unrelated religious cults
• Some Common features:
• Promised direct communion
with god/goddess
• Conscious eternal life
with god/goddess
• Equality within the worship
setting (senator/slave)
• Ceremonies: “things recited”, “things shown”, “things performed”
The World of Earliest Christians
• Secret rites: only the initiates
know
• Ceremonial washings (Isis)
• Meals (Mithras)
• ‘blood baptism’ of Cybele
cult - taurobolium
• Castration (Atargatis)
• Orgies (Dionysus)
The World of Earliest Christians
• Christianity and mystery religions
• Dying and raising gods (Jesus – gods)
• Natural cycle vs. historical event/person
• body vs. soul
• redemptive vs. non-redemptive.
The World of Earliest Christians
(d) Superstition and Magic
• Superstition and magic very common
• Horoscopes, magic formulas
• prediction of future through flight of birds, marks on liver etc.
• Professional exorcists; Jews & the divine name
 correct pronunciation and secrecy were keys
• Acts 19:13-20 Seven sons of Sceva - a failed exorcism
• Acts 13:6-12 and Bar-Jesus
The World of Earliest Christians
(e) Gnosticism
• Began at the time of Christianity
• 1 Tim 6:20 – ‘profane chatter/contradictions - ‘falsely called gnosis’
• High god spiritual - low ‘demiurge’
• Low god rebelled and created material world
• Sophia sent to redeem the world
• Dualism: material world evil; spirit good
• ascetism or hedonism
The World of Earliest Christians
• Salvation - secret spiritual knowledge (gnosis)
• Ignorance and knowledge not guilt and forgiveness
• Charismatic, androgyn ideal (blurring of male & female)
• Various Gnostic myths and stories
The World of Earliest Christians
(f) Philosophies
• Upper class intellectuals turned to philosophies
• No clear distinction between religion and philosophy
• Epicureans: Epicurus early 3rd century B.C.
• Universe made of small particles (cf. atoms)
• Gods distant and unknowable - dead was the end!
• Maximize pleasure & minimize pain
The World of Earliest Christians
• Stoicism: 3rd century B.C. by Zeno
• All that exists is matter; ‘world-soul’ (gr. logos) infused all things. God
is everything
• Realize what you can control and what not
• Avoid excesses of everything; reason, acceptance, calmness and
self-control
• Paul in Athens
• debates with Stoics and Epicureans (Acts 17)
• ‘not far from us’; ‘He created everything’; ‘judges’
The World of Earliest Christians
• Cynics: 4th B.C. Anisthenes & Diogenes
• Diogenes of Sinope: social rebel
• More often simple life style and poverty
• Disgraceful acts for provocation
• Skepticism & Neo-Pythagoreanism
• Skepticism: challenged dogmatism and tradition
• Neo-Pyth.: mysticism & mathematics, reincarnation and
harmony (Apollonius of Tyana and miracles)
The World of Earliest Christians
2.2 Some Key Aspects of Early Christians
• Expansion due to connectedness of the Empire
• Roads, language, customs, culture
• Pentecost and the birth of the church
• First persecution – believers were scattered
• Paul’s missionary activity and other believers
The World of Earliest Christians
• Parting ways with Judaism
• Christianity – a Jewish sect
• Circumcision AD 40
• Jerusalem council AD 49
• Paul’s Law free gospel – later Jewish Christian gospels!
• Person of Jesus Christ
• Watersheds AD 70, AD 132-135
The World of Earliest Christians
• Identity of Early Christians
• Inheritors of OT promises – not a brand new religion
• Scripture pointing to Jesus the Messiah
• Inclusion of Gentiles in OT
• Persecution and social exclusion
• Rumors of early Christian practices
• Cannibalism
• Atheism
• Incest
• Anti-social