The Research Process
Elke Johanna de Buhr, PhD
Tulane University
“In quantitative research, researchers often test theories
as an explanation for answers to their questions. … In
qualitative research, the use of theory is much more
varied. … In mixed methods research, researchers may
both test theories and generate them.“
Creswell, John W. Research Design. Sage.
“There are many different ways to answer a question.“
Salkind, Neil J. Exploring Research. Pearson HE.
Topics
• Formulating questions
• The use of theory
• The purpose statement
• Research questions
• Dependent and independent variables
• Research hypothesis & null hypothesis
• Samples and populations in the research
process
• Statistical significance
Textbook Chapters
• Creswell, Chapter 3, 6 and 7
• Salkind, Chapter 2
Chapter Three:
The Use of Theory
Chapter Outline
The Use of Theory
Quantitative Theory Use
Variables in Quantitative Research
Definition of a Theory in Quantitative Research
Forms of Theories in Quantitative Research
Placement of Quantitative Theories
Writing a Quantitative Theoretical Perspective
Example 3.1. A Quantitative Theory Section
Qualitative Theory Use
Variation in Theory Use in Qualitative Research
Locating the Theory in Qualitative Research
Example 3.2. A Theory Early in a Qualitative Study
Example 3.3. A Theory at the End of a Qualitative Study
Mixed Methods Theory Use
Social Science Theory Use
Transformative Paradigm Theory Use
Example 3.4. Theory in a Transformative Mixed
Methods Study
Summary
Writing Exercises
Additional Readings
The Use of Theory
• The literature determines what theories may
be used to examine the research questions
• Quantitative studies test theories as
explanations
• Qualitative studies may generate theories
• Mixed methods studies may have no
theories at all or a theoretical framework in
which both quantitative and qualitative data
are collected
Variables in Quantitative Research
• A variable is a characteristic of an
individual or group that is measurable
• Examples of variables in a study may
include age, gender and socioeconomic
status
• Variables may have temporal order, or be
measurable or observable
• Another term for a variable is a construct
Variables in Quantitative Research
(cont.)
• Independent
• Variables that probably cause outcomes
• Dependent
• The outcomes that depend on the independent variables
• Intervening or mediating
• Variables that stand between the independent and dependent variables
• Moderating
• New variables that measure the joint impact of two variables
• Control
• Independent variables that are measured and statistically "controlled"
• Confounding
• Variables that could also affect the dependent variables, but cannot or will not
be measured
Theories in Quantitative Research
• Here a theory is a scientific predication or
explanation of what the Researcher expects to
find out about a set of interrelated variables
• When a Researcher uses a theory to predict the
anticipated outcome of a study he/she has
created the hypothesis
• As the Researcher conducts the study and puts
forward an explanation for his/her predictions
and study findings, he/she is presenting his/her
theory
Theories in Quantitative Research
• Micro-level theories: limited to a small
segment of time, place or number of
people
• Meso-level theories: link micro-level and
macro-level theories
• Macro-level theories: explain larger
scales, for example the entire society
Forms of Theories in Quantitative
Research
• Theory
– Interrelated set of constructs formed into propositions
that specify the relationships among variables
– Describes how and why variables are related
• Forms include
– Set of hypotheses: These are interconnected and
demonstrate a process
– Series of if-then statements: These explain why one
would expect an independent variable to influence or
cause a dependent variable
– Visual model: These allow the reader to visualize the
interconnections between the variables
The Deductive Approach Used in
Quantitative Research
Placing Theory in a Quantitative Study
Quantitative Theoretical Perspective
1. Examine discipline specific literature (psychological,
sociological or a combination of both)
2. Examine the existing body of knowledge on the topic and
related topics
3. Look for connections between the independent and the
dependent variables
4. Script out the theory section (See Example 3.1)
•
•
•
•
Name the theory you plan to use
State the central hypothesis of the theory
Present information about who has used the theory and its applicability
Present an adoption of the theory to the variables of your study using
if-then logic
Qualitative Theory Use
• Provides broad explanations: Themes provide the context for
hypothesis to be tested from the literature
• Provides theoretical lens for the examination of issues of
marginalized groups: This allows for a transformative
perspective as it influences the questions asked, the data
collected and analyzed and the research outcomes
• The theory becomes the end point: Most qualitative research
is an inductive process building from the data to the broad
themes to a generalized model or theory (See Figure 3.5)
• No explicit theory: Some qualitative studies build from
detailed descriptions of phenomenon
The Inductive Logic of Research in a
Qualitative Study
Qualitative Theoretical Perspectives
• Feminist perspective
• Racialized discourse
• Critical theory
• Queer theory
• Disability inquiry
Researcher may also choose not to employ
theory in a qualitative study
Tips for Using Theory in Qualitative
Study
• First decide if you will use a theory in
your study
• If you decide to use a theory, identify the
theory that will be used using the
transformative or advocacy lens
• Place the narratives about the theory
early in the research proposal or at the
end of the proposal
Locating Theory in a Qualitative Study
1. Studies based on cultural themes or theoretical
lens: The theory is placed in the opening
passages
2. Studies based on emerging design or qualitative
inquiry: The theory appears in the beginning and
is modified as the study progresses.
3. Studies based on grounded theory or reciprocal
relationships: The data determines the theory
that is used
See Examples 3.2 and 3.3
Use of Theory in Mixed Methods
• Mixed methods studies may:
• Include theory deductively (theory testing
and validity)
• Include theory inductively (an emerging
theory or pattern)
• Use a theoretical lens or perspective to
guide the study
Social Science Theory Use
In social science research the theory often is the
overarching framework:
1. The theory is placed at the beginning of the study and
guides the questions/hypothesis
2. The theory is named and described and it informs the
explanation of the major variables in the study
3. The theory may be diagrammed that indicate the causal links
between the primary variables or concepts
4. The theory guides the data collection process
5. The theory informs the findings of the study and provides a
basis for comparison with other studies
Transformative Paradigm Theory Use
• There is growing use of Transformative Theory use in
mixed methods studies
• This approach is still evolving and is primarily applied
to discriminated and oppressed groups, while it
recognizes diversity among study participants
• Assumptions based on inclusion and challenging
oppression
• Designed to build trust
• Use of results to enhance social justice
See Box 3.1
Using Transformative Theory
1. Indicate at the beginning that transformative theory
is in use
2. Early in the study, outline the framework
3. Connect the theory with the existing body of
knowledge on the topic
4. Involve the community of interest in the process of
the research
5. Take a stance with the research question
6. Talk about your experience as a researcher
7. End the study: Advocate for change
See Example 3.4
Chapter Six:
The Purpose
Statement
Chapter Outline
The Purpose Statement
Significance and Meaning of a Purpose Statement
A Qualitative Purpose Statement
Example 6.1. A Purpose Statement in a Qualitative Phenomenology Study
Example 6.2. A Purpose Statement in a Case Study
Example 6.3. A Purpose Statement in an Ethnography
Example 6.4. A Purpose Statement in a Grounded Theory Study
A Quantitative Purpose Statement
Example 6.5. A Purpose Statement in a Published Survey Study
Example 6.6. A Purpose Statement in a Dissertation Survey Study
Example 6.7. A Purpose Statement in an Experimental Study
A Mixed Methods Purpose Statement
Example 6.8. A Convergent Mixed Methods Purpose Statement
Example 6.9. An Explanatory Sequential Mixed Methods Purpose Statement
Example 6.10. An Exploratory Sequential Mixed Methods Purpose Statement
Significance and Meaning of a
Purpose Statement
• The purpose statement
• Indicates why you want to do the study and what you intend to
accomplish
• Is the central controlling idea in a study
• Is written in a sentence or several sentences
• Sets the objectives, the intent, or the major idea of a proposal or a
study
• The purpose statement is NOT
• The problem leading to a need for the study (see Chapter 5)
• The questions to be answered by collecting data (see Chapter 7)
Qualitative Purpose Statements
• A good qualitative purpose statement contains:
• The central phenomenon
• The participants
• The research site
• Include language drawn from qualitative inquiry
• Use words such as purpose, intent, or objective to signal attention to
this statement as the central controlling idea
• Focus on a single phenomenon, narrow the study to one idea to be
explored or understood
• This statement should acknowledge that the study may evolve into an
exploration of relationships or comparisons among ideas
Qualitative Purpose Statements (cont.)
Include language drawn from qualitative inquiry
(cont.)
• Use action verbs such as describe, understand, develop, examine the
meaning of, or discover to convey how learning will take place
• Use neutral words and phrases, nondirectional language such as “selfexpression experiences of individuals”
• Provide a general working definition of the central phenomenon or
idea, particularly those not typically understood by a broad audience
• Include words that indicate the strategy of inquiry to be used in data
collection, analysis and the process of research
• Mention the participants in the study
• Identify the site for the research
• Delimit the scope of participation or research sites in the study
A Script for Writing Qualitative
Purpose Statements
The purpose of this _________________ (strategy of
inquiry, such as ethnography, case study, or other type)
study is (was? will be?) to ___________________
(understand? explore? develop? discover?) the
___________ (central phenomenon being studied) for
______________(the participants, such as the individual,
groups, organization) at ______________ (research site). At
this stage in the research, the _________________ (central
phenomenon being studied) will be generally defined as
________________ (provide a general definition).
Purpose Statement in a Qualitative
Phenomenology Study
Purpose Statement in a Case Study
Purpose Statement in an
Ethnography
Purpose Statement in a Grounded
Theory Study
Quantitative Purpose Statements
• This statement differs from the purpose statement in
a qualitative study in terms of language and focus
• Focus on relating or comparing the variables
(independent, dependent, and mediating,
moderating or control) and how these relate to:
• The participants
• The research site
• Identify the proposed major variables in a study
• Discuss the intent of using the variables
Quantitative Purpose Statements (cont.)
• A good quantitative purpose statement includes the
following:
• Words to signal the major intent of the study, such as purpose, intent,
or objective
• Identify the theory, model, or conceptual framework to provide
emphasis to the importance of the theory to be used in the study
• Identify the independent and dependent variables as well as any
mediating, moderating, or control variables used in the study
• Use words that connect the independent and dependent variables to
indicate that they are related (comparison, relationship between,
describe)
• Position the independent before the dependent variable; other
variables may go between the two or after the dependent variable
• Mention the specific strategy of inquiry used in the study
• Mention the participants or unit of analysis
• Use the literature to define the key variables
A Script for Writing Quantitative
Purpose Statements
• The purpose of this _______________ (experiment? survey?)
study is (was? will be?) to test the theory of ______________
(theory name) that ____________ (compares? relates?) the
____________ (independent variable) to _________________
(dependent variable), controlling for (control variables) for
(participants) at ___________ (the research site). The
independent variable(s) ______________ will be defined as
(provide a definition). The dependent variable(s) will be
defined as ____________ (provide a definition), and the
control and intervening variable(s), ___________, (identify
the control and intervening variables) will be defined as
________ (provide a definition).
Purpose Statement in a Published
Survey Study
Purpose Statement in a
Dissertation Survey Study
Purpose Statement in an
Experimental Study
Mixed Methods Purpose Statements
• A good mixed methods purpose statement contains:
• The overall intent of the study from a content perspective
• Information about both the quantitative and qualitative strands
of the study
• A rationale for combining both quantitative and qualitative data
• Guidelines include:
• Use words and phrases that signal intent such as: purpose, intent
of, or objective
• Indicate the overall purpose of the study from a content
perspective
• Indicate the type of mixed methods design
Mixed Methods Purpose Statements
(cont.)
Guidelines include (cont.):
• Discuss the reasons for combining both
quantitative and qualitative data:
A convergent design
An explanatory sequential design
An exploratory sequential design
Multiphase design
Scripts for Writing Mixed Methods
Purpose Statements
1. Convergent Mixed Methods Strategy
This mixed methods study will address ___________ [overall content
aim]. A convergent mixed methods design will be used, and it is a type of
design in which qualitative and quantitative data are collected in parallel,
analyzed separately, and then merged. In this study, ___________
[quantitative data] will be used to test the theory of ___________ [the
theory] that predicts that [independent variables] will ___________
[positively, negatively] influence the ___________ [dependent variables]
for ___________ [participants] at ___________ [the site]. The
___________ [type of qualitative data] will explore___________ [the
central phenomenon] for ___________ [participants] at ___________
[the site]. The reason for collecting both quantitative and qualitative
data is to ___________ [the mixing reason].
Scripts for Writing Mixed
Methods Purpose Statements
2. Explanatory Sequential Design
This study will address ___________ [content aim]. An explanatory
sequential mixed methods design will be used, and it will involve
collecting quantitative data first and then explaining the quantitative
results with in-depth qualitative data. In the first, quantitative phase of
the study, ___________ [quantitative instrument] data will be collected
from ___________ [participants] at ___________ [research site] to test
___________ [name of theory] to assess whether ___________
[independent variables] relate to ___________ [dependent variables].
The second, qualitative phase will be conducted as a follow up to the
quantitative results to help explain the quantitative results. In this
exploratory follow-up, the tentative plan is to explore ___________ [the
central phenomenon] with ___________ [participants at a ___________
[research site].
Scripts for Writing Mixed
Methods Purpose Statements
3. Exploratory sequential design
This study addresses ___________ [content aim]. The purpose of this
exploratory sequential design will be to first qualitatively explore with a
small sample and then to determine if the qualitative findings generalize
to a large sample. The first phase of the study will be a qualitative
exploration of ___________ [the central phenomenon] in which
___________ [types of data] will be collected from ___________
[participants] at ___________ [research site]. From this initial
exploration, the qualitative findings will be used to develop assessment
measures that can be administered to a large sample. In the tentatively
planned quantitative phase, ___________ [instrument data] will be
collected from ___________ [participants] at ___________ [research
site].
Convergent Mixed Methods
Purpose Statement
Explanatory Sequential Mixed
Methods Purpose Statement
Explanatory Sequential Mixed
Methods Purpose Statement
Exploratory Sequential Mixed
Methods Purpose Statement
Chapter Seven:
Research Questions and
Hypotheses
Chapter Outline
• Qualitative Research Questions
Example 7.1. A Qualitative Central Question From an Ethnography
Example 7.2. Qualitative Central Questions From a Case Study
• Quantitative Research Questions and Hypotheses
Example 7.3. A Null Hypothesis
Example 7.4. Directional Hypotheses
Example 7.5. Nondirectional and Directional Hypotheses
Example 7.6. Standard Use of Language in Hypotheses
• A Model for Descriptive Questions and Hypotheses
Example 7.7. Descriptive and Inferential Questions
• Mixed Methods Research Questions and Hypotheses
Example 7.8. Hypotheses and Research Questions in a Mixed
Methods Study
Example 7.9. A Mixed Methods Question Written Using Methods and
Content Language
Research Questions and Hypothesis
• Investigators place signposts to carry the
reader through a plan for a study
• An important signpost is the research
question or the hypothesis that narrows
the purpose statement to predictions
about what will be learned or questions
to be answered in the study
Qualitative Research Questions
• Qualitative researchers pose research questions
• Not objectives
• Not hypotheses
• Two types of qualitative research questions to focus
a study's purpose:
• Central question
• Broad question that asks for exploration of the central
phenomenon
• Subquestions
• Questions that narrow the focus of the study
Writing Qualitative Research
Questions
• Ask 1-2 central questions, these should be broad and ask for
an explanation of the central phenomenon or concept in the
study. Here the intent is to explore the general factors
relevant to the central phenomenon.
• Ask no more than 5-7 subquestions these will narrow the
study but leave open the questioning.
• Relate the central question to the strategy of inquiry:
• Ethnography, questions verify accuracy of data
• Critical ethnography, questions build on an existing body of literature
• Phenomenology, questions broadly stated without specific reference to
existing literature
• Grounded theory, questions generate a theory
Writing Qualitative Research
Questions
• Begin with "what" or "how” to convey an open or
emerging design
• Focus on a single phenomenon or concept, what is
the one single concept, that you want to explore?
• Use exploratory verbs as nondirectional rather than
directional words, like affect, influence, impact,
determine, cause and relate
• Use open-ended questions without reference to the
literature or theory
• Specify the participants and research site (unless
stated previously)
A Script for Writing a Qualitative
Central Question
• (How or What) is the (“story for” for narrative
research; “meaning of” the phenomenon for
phenomenology; “theory that explains the process
of ” for grounded theory; “culture-sharing
pattern” for ethnography; “issue” in the
“case” for case study) of (central phenomenon)
for (participants) at (research site).
A Qualitative Central Question
From an Ethnography
Qualitative Central Questions
From a Case Study
Quantitative Research Questions,
Hypotheses and Objectives
• Quantitative researchers pose research
questions or hypotheses and objectives to
focus the study's purpose
• Quantitative research questions:
• Questions about the relationships among
variables that the investigator seeks to know
Quantitative Research Questions,
Hypotheses and Objectives (cont.)
• Quantitative hypotheses:
• Predictions that the researcher makes about the
expected relationships among variables
• Predictions about the population values that the
researcher will estimate based on data from a
sample
• Quantitative objectives:
• Indicate a study's goals
• Used frequently in proposals for funding
Writing Quantitative Research
Questions and Hypotheses
• Write questions or hypotheses, not both
• Consider 3 approaches to the variables for a question or
hypothesis:
• Compare groups
• Relate variables
• Describe responses
•
•
•
•
Specify questions and hypotheses based on theory if possible
Measure the independent and dependent variables separately
Generally use demographic information as intervening variables
Use consistent words and ordering for independent and
dependent variables
Scripts for Writing Quantitative Research
Questions and Hypotheses
• Quantitative research question describing outcomes:
What is the frequency and variation of scores on ____________ (name the
variable) for ______________(participants) in the study?
• Quantitative research question focused on examining the
relationship among variables:
Does _________ (name the theory) explain the relationship between _________
(independent variable) and _________ (dependent variable), controlling for the
effects of _________ (control variable)?
• Quantitative null hypothesis:
There is no significant difference between _________ (the control and
experimental groups on the independent variable) on _________ (dependent
variable).
Forms for Writing Quantitative Research
Questions and Hypotheses
• The use of variables in research questions or hypothesis if one
wants to do:
An experiment or group comparisons
A survey that correlates variables
A descriptive study
• Write research questions and hypothesis that logically follow
from relationship among variables in a theory
• Research questions or hypothesis may indicate cause and
effect logic
• Research questions and hypothesis should have no
redundancies, do not write both
A Null Hypothesis
Directional Hypotheses
Forms for Writing Quantitative Research
Questions and Hypotheses
• If writing hypotheses, use a consistent form:
• Null hypotheses (predict no difference or no relationship)
• Alternative hypothesis or directional hypotheses (predict direction of
difference or relationship)
• Nondirectional hypotheses (predict a difference or relationship, but not its
direction)
• Use non demographic variables
• Use the same pattern of word order in the questions or hypotheses
to enable a reader to easily identify the major variables
• If writing research questions:
• First, specify descriptive questions for each important variable
• Next, state inferential questions that relate variables or compare groups
• Finally, add questions in which variables are controlled
Nondirectional and Directional
Hypotheses
Standard Use of Language in
Hypotheses
A Model for Descriptive
Questions and Hypotheses
Mixed Methods Research Questions
and Hypotheses
• Advance both qualitative and quantitative research questions
(or hypotheses) in order to narrow and focus the purpose
statement
• Use guidelines for writing good qualitative and quantitative questions
and hypotheses
• Order questions to match the mixed methods design
• In a two-phase design, order to match the phases
• In a one-phase design, order according to the method given the most
weight
• Include a mixed methods research question that:
• Conveys the methods and procedures
• Conveys the content of the study
• Combines the methods and content
Different Ways to Write Questions and
Hypotheses into a Mixed Methods Study
• Write separate qualitative questions and quantitative questions
or hypotheses:
• At the beginning or as they emerge in phases
• This places emphasis on the two approaches
• Write separate questions or hypotheses followed by a mixed
methods question:
• This highlights the two approaches as well as their combined
strength
• Write only a mixed methods question:
• This emphasizes the integration and not the individual parts
Hypotheses and Research Questions in a
Mixed Methods Study