Praxis II Study Prep
Reading Terms
Reading Strategies
Activating prior knowledge; predicting or asking questions; visualizing; drawing
influences; determining important ideas; synthesizing information; repairing
understanding; confirming; using parts of a book; reflecting
Activating prior knowledge
Thinking about connections between the text, real life experience, and the larger world.
Readers pay more attention when they relate to the text.
Predicting or asking questions
This strategy keeps readers engaged. It clarifies understanding and makes meaning. It is
at the heart of thoughtful reading
Visualizing
Active readers create images based on the words they read in the text, which increases
understanding.
Drawing inferences
Occurs when the readers take what they know, garner clues from the text and think
ahead to make a judgment, discern a theme, or speculate about what is to come.
Determining important ideas
Thoughtful readers grasp essential ideas and important information when reading.
Readers must differentiate between less important ideas and key ideas that are central
to the meaning of the text.
Synthesizing information
Involves combining new information with existing knowledge to form an original idea or
interpretation. Reviewing, sorting, and sifting important information can lead to new
insights that change the way readers think.
Repairing understanding
If confusion disrupts meaning, readers need to stop and clarify their understanding.
Readers use a variety of strategies to "fix up" comprehension when meaning goes awry.
Confirming
As students read and after they read, they can verify the predictions they originally
made. There is no wrong answer. Determining whether a prediction is correct is a goal.
Using parts of a book
Students should use charts, diagrams, indexes, and the table of contents to improve
understanding of the content
Reflecting
An important strategy is for students to think about what they have just read. This can
be simply thinking or more formal, such as a discussion or writing in a journal.
3 Cueing Systems to increase comprehension
Semantics, Syntax, Activating prior knowledge
Semantics
As students read they can guess at words they do not know by considering the rest of the
passage.
Syntax
Students should learn to ask Does it make sense?, Does it sound right in the
passage/sentence?, and Does it look right?
Miscue analysis
A way of acquiring insight into children's reading strategies by studying the mistakes
they make when reading aloud.
4 Levels of Comprehension
1. Literal, 2. Interpretive or Inferential, 3. Critical, and 4. Creative
Literal Comprehension
The lowest level of understanding. It involves reading the lines and understanding
exactly what is on the page. Students can repeat or paraphrase what they have read.
Interpretive/Inferential Comprehension
The second level of understanding. It requires the student to read between the lines and
may require readers to define figurative language or identify terms. They may have to
figure out the meaning on their own. Ex. determining author's purpose, main idea of a
passage, point of view of the author, or essential message of the piece.
Critical Comprehension
One of the highest levels of understanding. Requires readers to think beyond the printed
page. Ex. indicating whether text is true or false, distinguishing between fact and
opinion, detecting propaganda, judging whether the author is qualified to write the text,
recognizing bias and fallacies, identifying stereotypes, making assumptions.
Creative Comprehension
This level of understanding requires readers to respond to something they are
reading.Ex. stating another way to treat a situation, indicating another way of solving a
problem in the story, speculating whether the plot could have occurred in a different
place or time.
Story mapping
making graphic representations of stories that make clear the specific relationships of
story elements.
Venn diagrams
Enables a reader to compare two characters, concepts, places, or things by placing
specific criteria or critical attributes in the appropriate places on the diagram.
Fishbone organizer
Helps the reader illustrate cause and effect.
Methods of Assessing Reading Progress
Daily observation, Checklist, Rubric, Running record, Informal reading inventory,
Diagnosis of errors,
Rubric
also known as a scoring guide. It is used as a set of guidelines for evaluating a student's
work.
Running record
An assessment method that documents a child's reading as he or she reads aloud and
allows the teacher to evaluate the reading level as well as to not explicit types of miscues.
Specific marks are made to indicate the types of errors. Training is required, but once
trained, it is quick and easy to do.
Informal Reading Inventory
Student reads aloud while teacher notes miscues. Student then answers comprehension
questions. Then the student is timed while reading the passages silently and answering
comprehension questions.
Diagnosis of Errors
Figuring out why students make the reading mistakes they do. Is it because they read
without regard for meaning or without regard for the visual appearance of the word?
3 types of sentences
Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative
Declarative sentence
Makes a statement.
Interrogative sentence
Asks a question.
Imperative sentence
Gives a command or makes a request.
4 sentence structures
Simple
Compound
Complex
Complex-compound
Simple sentence
Sentence that has a subject and a verb
Compound sentence
Made up of two independent clauses joined by a coordinating (and, but, for, or, so, yet)
or correlative (either/or, neither/nor, both/and, not only/but also) conjunction or a
semicolon.
Independent clause
Clause that contains both a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought.
Complex sentence
Contains a dependent clause and an independent clause. Ex: Because I do not feel well, I
will not be attending the concert.
Dependent clause
Contains a subject and a verb and does NOT express a complete thought.
Complex-compound sentence
Contains at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. Ex. I am
going to town, and Bill is going when he gets his car repaired.
Run-on sentence
Several thought incorrectly joined are not grammatically correct. Ex. I like to ice skate
my brother does not.
Sentence fragment
An incomplete thought is not grammatically correct. Ex. Making his way in the world
today.
Noun
A person, place, thing, or idea.
Pronoun
A word that can replace a noun. Ex. I, you, who, one, any, myself...
Personal pronouns
I, you, she, she, it, we, you, they, them, us, my, mine, me, your, yours, her, hers, its, our,
ours, us, their, theirs
Relative pronouns
who, whom, whose, what, which, that
Interrogative pronouns
who, what, when, where, how
Demonstrative pronouns
this, that, these, those
Indefinite pronouns
one, any, each, anyone, somebody, all...
Reciprocal pronouns
each other, one another
Intensive pronouns
myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves
Verb
A word or phrase (was writing, has been sewing) that shows action (writing, sewing) or a
state of being (is, are, am, was, were).
Transitive verbs
May take a direct object: Bob BEAT the rug.
Some can be used as active or linking
verbs
Intransitive verbs
Do not require an object: The chorus WAS SINGING as they entered the building.
Active verb
Expresses action done by its subject: Jane FELT the prickly bush.
Linking verb
Verb followed by an adjective: Bill FELT dizzy.
Adjective
Modifies or limits a noun or pronoun. Answers the questions which one, what kind, and
how many.
Descriptive adjective
Names a quality of an object: BLUE notebook
Limiting adjective
Restricts the meaning or indicates quantity or number.
Possessive adjective
HER jacket, THEIR house...
Demonstrative adjective
THIS automobile
Interrogative adjective
WHICH cat belongs to you?
Articles
A, AN, THE
Numerical adjectives
ONE ticket, SECOND half of the game
Comparative and Superlative adjectives
BIGGER house, ROUNDER shape, HOTTER weather
BIGGEST house, ROUNDEST
shape, HOTTEST weather
Adverb
A word that limits or describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Ex. Herman
walks QUICKLY.
Jane colors VERY WELL.
Billy out the cat OUTSIDE EARLIER.
(OUTSIDE modifies "put" with regard to location; EARLIER modifies "put" with regard
to when it happened)
Preposition
Relates a noun or pronoun to another word in the sentence. (Anywhere a squirrel can
go)
Prepositional phrase
The preposition and its object form a _____________.
Ex. Bill drew a circle
AROUND THE SUBJECT. (AROUND is the preposition, SUBJECT is the object of the
preposition)
Conjunction
A word that may connect words, phrases, and clauses.
Coordinating conjunction
Joins words, phrases or clauses of equal rank: and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet.
Subordinating conjunction
Join subordinate clauses with main clauses: although, after, because, if...
BECAUSE he
was better, Billy went home from the hospital. ("Billy...hospital" is the main clause;
"Because...better" is the subordinate clause.
Interjections
Words inserted to show emotion: Wow!, Ouch! Hey!
Modifiers
May describe or limit the meaning of a word or group of words.
Both adjectives and adjective phrases or clauses can...
modify a noun
Both adverbs and adverbial phrases or clauses can...
modify a verb
Phrase
A group of words without a subject and predicate. It can function as a noun, ,an
adjective, an adverb, or a verb. They may be prepositional, participial, gerunds,
infinitives, and verbs.
Prepositional phrase (adverb)
The team ran ACROSS THE FIELD.
(_____used as _____)
Participial phrase (adjective)
The horse WINNING THE RACE belongs to me.
(_____ used as _____)
Gerund phrase (noun and subject of the sentence)
WRITING THE BOOK was a pleasure. (_____ used as _____)
Infinitive (noun and subject of the sentence
TO WALK was his goal. (_____ used as _____)
Clause
Contains a subject and a verb. It may be independent or subordinate (dependent).
Do not capitalize
systems of government or individual adherents to a philosophy; compass directions or
seasons
When to use a comma
1. In a series
2. With a long introductory phrase (not a short phrase, unless it includes
a verb form being used as another form of speech: "When eating, Mary..." or "Having
decided to leave, James...")
3. To separate sentences with two main ideas
4. To
separate an introductory subordinate clause: "Whenever I can, I try to..."
5. To slow
the flow of the sentence: appositives, interjections, direct address, tag questions,
geographical names and addresses, transitional words and phrases, parenthetical words
and phrases, unusual word order)
6. With nonrestrictive elements
7. To set off direct
quotations or contrasting elements.
8. In dates
Nonrestrictive elements
A word or group of words that are not vital to the meaning of the sentence. These are set
off by commas: My sister, THE GIRL WHO WROTE THE STORY, has always loved to
write.
Restrictive elements
A word or group of words that are vital to the meaning of the sentence. These are NOT
set off by commas: The girl WHO WROTE THE STORY is my sister.
Contrasting elements
Her intelligence, NOT HER BEAUTY, got her the job.
Your plan will take you a little
further from, RATHER THAN CLOSER TO, your destination.
It was a reasonable,
THOUGH NOT APPEALING, idea.
Semicolons
Use this punctuation to 1. Separate independent clauses not joined by a coordinating
conjunction
2. Separate independent clauses separated by a conjunctive adverb 3.
Separate items in a series with internal commas
Conjunctive adverbs
accordingly, besides, consequently, finally, furthermore, however, indeed, in fact,
moreover, nevertheless, next, nonetheless, now, on the other hand, otherwise, perhaps,
still, therefore...
Colon
Signals the reader that a list, explanation, or restatement of the preceding will follow. It
is like an arrow, indicating that something more is to come. Information preceding this
mark should be a complete sentence.
cloze
assessment to determine instructional, independent or frustration reading levels. A
great way to assess the whole class at once. Passages need to be > 275 words. Teacher
deletes every fifth word. Independent = 60% or more of the words, Instructional = 4060% of the words, Frustration = less than 40% of the words.
phonological
Pertaining to a speaker's knowledge about sound patterns in a language.
graphonics
refers to the sound relationship between the orthography (symbols) and phonology
(sounds) of a language.
similes
comparison using like or as
morphemes
smallest meaningful units of speech; simple words, suffixes, prefixes; examples: red,
hot, calm, -ed, preexpository
the purpose of the author is to inform, explain, describe, or define his or her subject to
the reader.
three features of expository writing
This is an essay that may describe a thing or a process.
It can analyze people, events
and objects.
It can provide facts and notions that can be supported by proofs.
metaphors
comparison between two unlike things WITHOUT using like or as
syllables
sections of a word that can be said by themselves
long vowel sounds
this vowel sound "says its letter name." the vocal cords are tense when producing the
long vowel sound. The linguistic term for these sounds is tense.
short vowel sounds
every vowel has two sounds, the vocal cords are more relaxed when producing the short
vowel sound because of this the sounds are often referred to as lax. They can be heard at
the beginning of these words: apple, Ed, igloo, octopus, and umbrella.
nonsense words
words or parts of words which do not exist in the language you are using
The child
repeated the nonsense syllables 'boo di doo doo'.
context clues
A vocabulary strategy in which the reader looks at the words around an unfamiliar word
to find clues to its meaning.
historical fiction
A fictional story with real and invented characters that takes place during a historical
time.
mystery
A suspenseful story about a puzzling event that is not solved until the end of the story.
fantasy
A story including elements that are impossible such as talking animals or magical
powers.
folktale
A story, often with a message, that was initially passed on by word of mouth.
poetry
a verse written to inspire thought by the reader.
non-fiction
All of the information is based on true facts and not made up.
autobiography
The story of a real person's life that is written by that person.
biography
The story of a real person's life that is written by another person.
realistic fiction
A story using made-up characters that takes place in modern times.
science fiction
A story that blends futuristic technology with scientific fact and fiction.
word families
Phonograms or words that share the same rime (ex; fast, past, last, blast, all share the ast rime). In the derivational relations stage, this can refer to words that share the same
root or origin, as in spectator, spectacle, inspect, inspector.
guided reading
Instructional support including immediate corrective feedback as students read orally.
literature circles
small, temporary, and heterogeneous groups of student that gather together to discuss a
book that each of them are reading with the goal of enhancing comprehension.
4 Ways to build Phonemic Awareness?
1. Tell Rhymes 2. ABCs & read alphabet books 3. Alliteration 4. Give the ability to sound
and blend their letters (slap, trap)
3 levels of comprehension?
1. Literal 2. Interpretive 3. Applied
5 Steps in the Reading Process:
1. Pre-Reading 2. Reading 3. Responding 4. Exploring 5. Applying
5 Systems of Language:
1. Sound- Phonology 2. Meaning -Semantics (vocabulary) 3. Word Order - Syntax 4.
Grammar - Morphology 5. Social Uses -Pragmatics
6 thinking processes:
1. Connect 2. Organize 3. Image 4. Predict 5. Self monitor 6.Generalize
7 Crucial Understandings About Print
1. Children who have had many print experiences know why we read & write. 2. Greater
knowledge to make sense of the info they read. 3. Understand the conventions & jargon
of print. 4. Have higher levels of phonemic awareness. 5. Can read some important-tothem words. 6. Know some letter names and sounds. 7. Are eager and confident in their
reading and writing
How many phonemes are there in the English language?
44
Accuracy and Fluency affect the ability to...
read smoothly and quickly.
Activating prior knowledge
use of a concrete experience or object pretesting discussions anticipation guides
Affixes
subordinate additions to rood words with grammar-like functions. They can either be
added to the beginning (prefixes) or the end (suffixes)
Alliteration:
Producing groups of words that begin with the same initial sound; alliteration and
rhyming are at the beginning of the phonological awareness continuum.
Allusion
an indirect reference to a person, place, thing, or event considered to be known to the
reader
Analogy Based Phonics
Children learn to use parts of word families they know to identify words that have
similar parts.(root words, suffixes, prefixes)
Analytic Phonics
Learn to understand letters-sound relationships in previously learned words. They do
not pronounce words in isolation.
Applied Level of Comprehension
using information to express opinions and form new ideas.
Assessment Tool Categories
1. Student Profile 2. Auditory Discrimination and Phoneme Awareness 3. Emerging
Literacy assessment 4. Sight Word Assessment 5. Formal Reading Assessment
Assonance
repetition of a vowel sound
Authentic Assessment
Assessment activities which reflect the actual workplace, family, community and school
curriculum. Involves using tasks that are typical of the kinds of reading or writing that
students perform in school and out.
Awareness of Print
understanding that the squiggly lines on a page represent spoken language. They
understand that when adults read a book, what they say is linked to the words on the
page, rather than to the pictures.
Balanced Approach characteristics
1.Literacy is viewed as involving reading & writing 2.Lit is the heart of the program 3.
Skills & strategies are taught both directly & indirectly. 4. Reading involves learning
word recognition, fluency, vocabulary & comprehension. 5.Writing involves learning to
express meaningful ideas & use conventional spelling, grammar & punctuation.
6.Reading & writing for learning in the content areas. 7.Goal is to develop lifelong
readers and writers.
Balanced Reading Program
Reading to children, reading with children,& reading by children
Basal Reading Program
Commercially produced reading programs. May include guided reading, workbooks,
practice books, manuals, tests
Base Words
meaningful linguistic units that can stand alone and contain no smaller meaningful
parts (free morphemes)
Behaviorism
Skinner- Students learn a series of discrete skills. Stimulus, teacher/response, teacher
centered, set up standards, teach to the standards. How we use it: worksheets, basal
readers
Bottom-Up
progressing from the parts of language (letters) to the whole word (meaning) (letters,
Words, Sentences, Paragraphs, Texts, Meaning)
Components of a Reading Program
1.Reading-engagement of the written word 2.Oral Language-connection between oral &
written 3.Writing-allow students to practice 4.Spelling- correlates w ability to identify
words
Components of strategy instruction
Assessment, Explanation, Awareness, Modeling and Demonstration, Guided practice
application
Concrete words
Words that most children can recognize by cite. (Their name, Mom, Dad)
Consonant Blend
Two or three consonants blended together. The sound that this blend makes is the
sound of the consonants blended together.
Consonant Cluster
A group or sequence of consonants that appear together in a syllable without a vowel
between them.
Consonant diagrams
Two consecutive consonants that represent one new speech sound. In the word
"digraph" the "ph" sounds like /f/. This is a digraph.
Consonant Digraph
A pair of consonants that makes a single sound that is different from each individual
letter sound.
Constructivism
Students construct own frames of thought. Modify cognitive structures/schemata. Nonauthorization. Student centered. Indirect instruction.
Critical literacy
Language is a means for social action. Teach grammar, standard English. Value dialects.
Read & discuss books that involve social issues. Write letters to the editor.
Decoding Clues
Semantic- Syntactic- Picture- Graphophonic- Syllable Division
Differences between Indirect and Direct Vocabulary instruction
Indirect: students learn word when they hear or see words used. Best learning takes
place after being exposed to many different types of contexts. Directly: explicitly taught,
words and word strategies.
Differences between more fluent readers and less fluent readers
More: able to focus on making connections between ideas and the text. Less: most have
their primary focus on decoding words. Leaves little time for comprehension. Reading is
choppy and halting.
Digraph
A pair of characters used to write one phoneme (distinct sound) or a sequence of
phonemes that does not correspond to the normal values of the two characters
combined.
Diphthong
A complex speech sound beginning with one vowel sound and moving to another within
the same syllable. (boy-oy noise- oi).
Directed Reading Thinking Activity
1. Sample the Text 2. Make Predictions 3. Sample the Text to Confirm or Correct
Predictions
Discussion circles
After a text is read the teacher prompts the student, perhaps asking for funny or unusual
words.
Distinctions between phonological awareness and phonemic awareness
Phonological: includes phonemic awareness. Understanding & manipulating larger
parts of speech, words, syllables, onsets & rimes as well as phonemes. Phonemic:
identifying & manipulating individual sounds in words.
Early Readers
1. ID most high frequency words. 2. Use pics to confirm meaning . 3. Use Syntax &
Phonics to figure out most simple words. 4. Use spelling patterns to figure out words. 5.
They are gaining control of reading strategies. 6. Use their own experiences &
background info to glean meaning.
Eclectic Approach
Teachers borrow elements from two or more approaches to create their own approach.
Embedded Phonics
Children learn letter sound relationships by reading. Not systematic or explicit.
Emergent Readers
understand that print contains a message, recognize some high frequency words using
context, realize pics can be used to predict meaning.
Encode
to put words into print.
Factors that affect a student's ability to understand reading text
1. Accuracy and Fluency 2. Reading Level of Text 3. Word Recognition skills 4. Prior
Knowledge or Experiences 5. Vocabulary 6. English Language Development
Fluency
the ability to read a text accurately and quickly. It frees students to understand what
they read.
Fluent Readers
ID most words, read chapter books with good comprehension, consistently monitor
cross-check and self, correct reading. They can offer their own interpretations of text
based on personal experience and prior reading.
concepts children must recognize in order to be phonemically aware
1.Rhyming 2. Word Blending 3. Phonemic Segmentation 4. Sound addition and
Subtraction 5. Sound Manipulation
Four main components of a reading program
1. Reading 2. Oral Language 3. Writing 4. Spelling
Frustration Reading Level
a level students shouldn't read (below 85%)
Grapheme
The unit of writing that represents a single phoneme. It can be a letter or a group of
letters. The smallest part of WRITTEN language that represents a phoneme in the
spelling of a word. A grapheme may be just one letter, such as b,d,f,p,s or several letters,
such as ch, sh, th, -ck, ea, -igh.
Guided Reading
Students do the reading w/ teacher guidance. Teachers meet w/ small homogenous
groups using instructional level books to observe & support students use of strategies
Homographs
Words that have identical spellings but sound different and have different meanings.
Homonym
A word which is spelled & pronounced identically to another, but has a different
meaning.(Swimming POOL- POOL table).
Informal Reading Inventory (IRI)
An informal instrument designed to help teachers determine a child's independent,
instructional, frustration,& capacity levels.
levels of reading
Independent- reading is at 95% success. Instructional- reading is at 90% success.
Frustration- reading is below 90% success, child becomes too focused on decoding, loses
comprehension.
Summative Assessment
occurs after learning has taken place and summarizes students' progress at the end of a
unit or a semester or at some other point in time
Formative Assessment
Takes place during learning and is used to plan or modify instruction
Evaluation
The process of using the results of tests, observations, work samples, and other devices
to judge the effectiveness of a program. A program is evaluated in terms of its objectives.
The ultimate purpose of evaluation is to improve the program.
High-stakes Test
Results are used to make an important decision such as passing students, graduating
students, or rating a school.
Assessment
The process of gathering data about an area of learning through tests, observations,
work samples, and other means.
Reliability
The degree to which a test yields consistent results. If students took a test again, the
results would be the same.
Validity
The degree to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure
Content Validity
The tasks of an assessment device are representative of the subject or area being
assessed.
Listening Capacity
The highest level of reading material that students can understand with 75 percent
comprehension when it is read to them.
Miscue
An oral reading response that differs from the expected (correct) response.
Running Record
An assessment device in which a student's oral reading errors are noted and classified in
order to determine whether the material is on the appropriate level of difficulty and to
see which reading strategies the student is using.
Group Reading Inventories
Used when it is impractical to administer individual IRIs. Three tests: Degrees of
Reading Power (DRP), The Scholastic Reading Inventory, and STAR
Maze Passage
The student chooses from three or more words the one that is the correct replacement
for a deleted word.
Norm-Referenced Test
Students' performances are compared with a norm group, which is a representative
sampling of students.
Criterion-Referenced Test
Student's performances are compared to a criterion, or standard.
Raw Score
The number of correct answer or points earned on a test.
Percentile Rank
The point on a scale of 1 to 99 that shows what percentage of students obtained an equal
or lower score. A score of 75 means that 75 percent or of those who took the test received
an equal or lower score.
Grade Equivalent Score
indicated the score that the average student at that grade level achieved.
Norm Curve Equivalent
The ranking of a score on a scale of 1 through 99
Stanine
A point on a 9-point scale, with 5 being average.
Rubric
A written description of the traits or characteristics of standards used to judge a process
or product
Think-Alouds
Procedures in which students are asked to describe the processes they are using as they
engage in reading or another cognitive activity.
Anecdotal Record
The recording of the description of a significant incident of student behavior
Holistic Scoring
A process for sorting or ranking students' written pieces on the basis of an overall
impression of each piece.
Analytic Scoring
A process for scoring that uses a description of major features to be considered when
assessing a written piece.
The first step in building higher-level literacy
Determine your students' level of literacy development by using an informal reading
inventory, running records, or other placement measures to find out their general
reading level.
Ways to foster emergent literacy
Create an environment that promotes active reading, writing, listening, and speaking.
Examples: A student-run post office so that children can correspond with each other. Email (if computers are available). Modeling (allowing students to observe you as you
write notes to parents, the principal, etc.). Encourage adults to write to the class and
post their letters.
Stages of Language Development
Sensorimotor stage (0-2 years), Preoperational Stage (2-7 years), Concrete Operational
Stage (7-11 years), and Formal Operational Stage (11-15 years)
Onset
All the sounds in the syllable before the vowel
Rime
The vowel and everything that follows it
Phonemes
The smallest units comprising spoken language. Combine to form syllables and words.
For example, the word 'mat' has three phonemes: /m/ /a/ /t/
Phonemic Awareness
The ability to hear, identify, and manipulate individual sounds (phonemes) in spoken
words
Graphemes
Represented by symbols or letters
Alphabetic Principle
The principle that letters in written words represent sounds in spoken words.
Phonological Awareness
A broad skill that includes identifying and manipulating units of oral language-parts
such as words, syllables, and onsets and rimes.
Ways to assess phonemic awareness
Recognizing Rhyming words, Oddity Tasks (which one does not belong), Syllable and
sound counting task, initial consonant sound test, same different word pair task,
auditory sound blending task, segmenting sounds
Strategies for teaching phonemic awareness
Playing with rhymes and alliteration, grab the odd one out, picture box sound counting
(Elkonin Boxes), beginning with children's names, add a sound/take a sound, sing it out,
word rubber banding
Phonics
Teaching practices that emphasize how spellings are related to speech sounds
systematically. (Letter-sound relationships)
Synthetic Approach to phonics instruction
Traditional instruction where students change letters into speech sounds and blend
them together (sounding out).
Embedded Approach to phonics instruction
Less explicit, embedded into the text. Authentic reading for enjoyment.
Analogy approach to phonics instruction
A variation of onset and rime instruction, using prior knowledge of word families (ed. eep, peep, sleep, weep).
Analytic Approach to phonics instruction
Students study previously learned whole words to discover letter sounds relationships.
(pl, play, plan, plot consonant blends).
Phonic through spelling approach to phonics instruction
Segmenting words into phonemes and writing letters that represent the sounds.
Syllable
A word or part of a word that contains one vowel
6 syllable types
Closed, open, vowel-consonant-silent e, vowel pair, R-controlled, and consonant-le.
Closed syllable
A short vowel, followed by at least one consonant: much, vet, shell, insect, publish,
sunset
Open Syllable
End in a vowel that is usually long: Shy, go, me, silo, zero.
Vowel-consonant-silent e Syllable
Vowels are long and the final e is silent. Lime, those, snake.
Vowel Pair Syllable
Vowels sounds are spelled with digraphs such as: plain, coat, cowboy
R-Controlled Syllable
A vowel followed by an r. The r affects the sound the vowel makes, and both sounds are
heard within the same syllable: or, ir, er, ar, ur
Consonant-le syllable
AKA final stable syllables. Bubble, maple, kettle, and fiddle.
Sight words
Words that occur frequently in print and are usually best learned through
memorization.
Structural Analysis
The ability to study words to identify their individual meanings.
Activities for Phonics Instruction
Letter-sound cards, Phonics fish card game, spelling in parts, sound swirl, button
sounds, stomping, clapping, tapping, and snapping sounds, tongue twisters, creating
nonsense words, word boxes, etc.
7 Aspects of our Language System
Phonology, Morphology, Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics, Orthography, Vocabulary
Phonology
The basic sound units of language (phonemes)
Morphology
Units of meaning within words; the way words are formed (morphemes)
Syntax
Phrase and sentence structure
Semantics
The way language conveys meaning
Pragmatics
Appropriate word choice and use in context to communicate effectively
Orthography
spelling patterns
Vocabulary
Knowledge of the meaning and pronunciation of words (lexicon)
Reading Vocabulary
Word is in the student's listening and speaking vocabularies but is not yet recognized in
print
Writing Vocabulary
Word is in the student's listening, speaking, and reading vocabularies but is not yet
known well enough to be used when writing compositions.
Concepts/Schema
The student does not comprehend the new word because of a lack of conceptual
knowledge related to the word
Receptive Vocabulary
Listening and Reading
Expressive Vocabulary
Speaking and Writing
Technical Vocabulary
The new word is unknown to the student and is directly related to a content area
Context
the student has trouble using context clues to figure out the meaning of an unknown
word
Morphemic Analysis
Student lacks sufficient knowledge about word parts such as prefixes, suffixes, and root
words (also known as structural analysis)
Using vocabulary to enhance comprehension
Teachers should preteach new words that are associated with the text they are about to
read
Levels of Word Knowledge
Unknown- Don't recognize
Initial recognition- have sen or heard word but does not
know meaning
Partial word knowledge- knows one meaning of word and use it in a
sentence
Full word knowledge- knows more than one meaning of word and can use it
in several ways
The largest source of increasing one's vocabulary
Reading
Sustained silent reading
encourages a wide variety of reading
How students learn vocabulary words
Incidental word learning, independent reading, sustained silent reading, and being read
aloud to
Synonyms
Words with the same meaning (cold, cool, chilly, frigid, frosty, freezing)
Antonyms
Words that mean the opposite (loud-quiet)
Homonyms
Words that sound or look the same but have different meanings (to-too-two) (rightwrite) (there-their-they're) (bear-bare) (wind-wind)
Semantic Maps
Useful in tying together new vocabulary with prior knowledge and related terms
Etymologies
The history of the English Language
Idioms
Groups of words that have special meaning ("in hot water")
Free Morpheme
A freestanding root or base of any word that cannot be further divided and still have
meaning. (Farmer, farm is the root word)
Bound Morpheme
The part of the word that carries meaning only when attached to a free morpheme (the er in farmer)
Most common bound morphemes
Prefixes- in, pre, mono
suffixes- er, ous, ology
inflectional endings - s, es, ing, ed, est
Ways to assess student's vocabulary knowledge
Observation, conferences, rubrics, tests, Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, Expressive
Vocabulary Test, Informal Reading Inventories
3 reasons why some students struggle to become fluent
Reading books too difficult, Reading very little, Frequently asked to read aloud and then
teachers interrupt and correct them
4 principles to promote reading fluency
Teachers should model reading, Teacher should provide support while students are
reading, teachers should have students do repeated readings of brief texts, and teachers
should focus students' attention on chunking words into meaningful phrasing
Cloze Passages
Short (250 word) passages drawn from typical reading materials found in your
instructional program. Student's asked to read passage and see if they can fill in the
missing words based on what they believe makes sense using context clues.
Maze Test
Similar to cloze test with one exception: there are three choices for the students to
choose from for each blank in the passage
Vocabulary Flash Cards
One of the most traditional ways to do a quick assessment of a student's vocabulary
knowledge
Enhancing Accuracy
word reading must be accurate and automatic. Taught through mini lessons and words
walls. Students need daily opportunities to practice the words they're learning in
reading and writing
Improving reading speed
Best way to improve is through repeated readings. Practice reading at independent level,
record progress monitoring data, have guided reading lessons, and listening centers
Accuracy
The ability to recognize familiar words automatically, without conscious thought
Reading Speed
Refers to the rate at which students read. Readers should adjust their speed depending
on the difficulty of what they're reading and their purpose
Prosody
The ability to orally read sentences expressively, with appropriate phrasing and
intonation
Components of Fluency
Accuracy, Identifying unfamiliar words quickly, To read fluently a student needs to read
a piece of text that is independent level 95% accuracy, Reading Speed and Prosody
Teaching Prosody
Teach students to phrase or chunk together parts of sentences. Practice expression and
choral or unison reading
Reading Practice
Students need many opportunities to practice reading and rereading books to develop
fluency (choral reading, readers' theater)
Promoting Reading Fluency
Sustained silent reading
Round Robin Reading no longer recommended
Prerequisites for Comprehension
Background knowledge - need word and literature knowledge
Vocabulary - important
to comprehension
Fluency- read quickly and efficiently; can devote time to
comprehension
Assessing Fluency
DIBELS
Fluency Checks
Informal Reading Inventories
Running Records
Comprehension
The ultimate goal of reading
The reason why people read
Involves different levels of
thinking
Ways to Activate prior knowledge
Anticipation guides
exclusion brainstorming
graphic organizers
KWL
charts
Prereading plans
3 ways to connect to a story
text-to-text
text-to-word
text-to-self
Demonstrating Comprehension Skills
Compare/Contrast
Cause/Effect
Sequencing
Paraphrasing
Ways to develop comprehension
Students spend lots of time reading authentic texts independently
Students need to
discuss their reading with classmates and teachers
Teachers need to read aloud to
students
Assessing Comprehension
Cloze Procedures
Story Retellings
Running Records
Think-Alouds
Types of Literacy Centers
Listening Center, Drama Center, Writing Center, Publishing Center, Reading nook, play
center, computer center
Guided Reading Instruction
Small, homogeneous groups of children who reflect a similar range of competencies,
experiences, and interest in book reading and word study.
Shared Reading
The teacher reads a book aloud with a group of children as they follow along in the text,
often using a big book.
Reading Rate
The speed at which a person reads; generally measured as words per minute or words
correct per minute. (is able to read and comprehend)
Fluency
Reading with proper speed, accuracy, automaticity, expression, and intonation - aids in
comprehension
Readability
The level of comprehension and visual comfort when reading printed material.
Readability is concerned with how the type is arranged on a page. Readability is affected
by line length, word spacing, character spacing and leading.
High Frequency Words
The words most commonly used in reading and writing. Examples: Can, See
invented spellings
spelling children use early in their reading and writing development as they begin to
assciate letters to sounds
automaticity
ability to respond quickly and efficiently while mentally processing or physically
performing a task
repeated readings
Students read the same text repeatedly, until a desired level of fluency is attained
Stages of Spelling development
Precommunicative, semiphonetic, phonetic, transitional, conventional
Concepts of print
print represents spoken language; print is directional from left to right and top to
bottom; books are read from front to back; the strings of letters separated by spaces in
text are words, and individual letters are different from words; sentences begin with
capital letters and end with periods, etc.....
Emergent literacy
Knowledge and skills relating to reading that children usually develop from experience
with books and other print media before the beginning of formal reading instruction in
school.
onsets
any consonant sounds before the vowel
rimes
Part of a syllable that contains the vowel and all that follows it ( the rime of bag is ag and
the rime of swim is im)
WCPM
How many words a student can read in a minute (Word Count Per Minute)
VAKT
Fernald (-Keller) method - to identify a printed word, see it (visual), say it (auditory),
trace it (kin/tactile)
Grapheme-Phoneme Correspondence
The sound-symbol relationship between letters and sounds
Sense of story
expose children to high quality literature.
dialogic reading, reading with the
children.
reading lots of kinds of books. pattern books, rhyming books, illustrations,
alphabet.
Influences the child't prediction of syntax and comprehension (background
knowledge)
self-correction
When students are able to correct language mistakes they have made when asked
without help from the teacher or other students
segmentation
breaking apart sounds in words and ability to recognize these separations
Elkonian Boxes
Series of boxes or tiles to represent a series of phonemes. Reinforce the shape of letters
and words.
Environmental Print
written text that's observable in one's surroundings, such as signs, labels, stickers,
billboards, and brand names.
Echo Reading
a strategy where the teacher reads a line or passage with good expression, and calls on
students to read it back. This is a good technique to use with Emergent Readers to help
them build reading fluency.
Alphabetic Principle
The idea that letters represent sound and that the printed letters can be turned into
speech
Brainstorming
A method of shared problem solving in which all members of a group spontaneously
contribute ideas
Consonant
A letter and a sound. All letter except for the vowels, a, e, i, o, u and sometimes y and w
LEA (Language Experience Approach)
An approach to literacy in which the teacher asks the student to dictate a sentence or
story based on some past experience. The teacher prints the student's dictation and
reads it back to the student. The student rereads it until he/she can read it
independently
DR/TA (Directed reading/thinking activity
Students are taught how to understand information in the text by engaging in a series of
predictions prior to reading specific segments
Vowel
A letter and a sound. All letters, except the consonants
Guided Reading
Involves students reading a text while simultaneously hearing the text read aloud in a
fluent manner
Readers Theatre
Students read aloud and concentrate on voice intrepretation and characterization
DRA (Directed Reading Activity)
Includes the teaching of several new sight words prior to the reading of each new story
Literature circles
A students' equivalent in the classroom of an adult book club. The goal it to encourage
student choice and a love of reading in young people
Preview
To see beforehand; specifically: to view or show in advance of public presentation: read
the front and back cover of the book first
prediction
To declare or indicate in advance; foretell on the basis of observation, experience, or
scientific reason
Reader's Workshop
The program emphasizes the interaction between readers and text. This program
includes peer/teacher conferences; student's independence; encourages successful
reading outside of the classroom
Request procedure
This strategy gives the teacher and students opportunities to ask each other their own
questions following the reading of a selection
DL/TA (Directed Listening/Thinking Activity
Students are prepared to listen to a story that will be read by their teacher by being
given specific information that they are to focus on as they listen. The strategy utilizes
prereading, reading, and post reading questions and discussions
metacognition
Thinking about one's own cognitive processes
macroprocesses
A global understanding of the text
text structures
Temporal and spatial arrangement of elements in a written, oral, or visual text
schema
prior knowledge and experiences that the reader brings to the text
schemata
Internal organization of concepts and actions that are revised by new information
(internal diagram that helps you visual learned information)
prior knowledge
knowledge that stems from previous experiences
monitoring
an awareness of one's understanding of text while the text is being read
levels of comprehension
Three levels of understanding that include literal, interpretative, and applied (surface
knowledge, reading between the lines, and applying facts and meanings to other
concepts and situations)
Bloom's levels of Comprehension
A classification of intellectual behaviors important to learning (knowledge,
understanding, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation)
Barrett's levels of questions
Questions asked during a reading text that consist of literal comprehension, influential
comprehension, evaluation, and appreciation (questions that prompt recall of
information, shapes understanding, and encourages reflection)
Fry's readability scale
A reading formula used to determine a person's reading level (averaging the number of
sentences and syllables correctly read withing a one hundred word passage)
comprehension strategies
strategies used to help students understand and remember text, self-monitoring, rereading, summarizing, note-taking and outlining, mapping, learning logs where they
generate questions about the text
connotative meaning
The meaning suggested by the associations or emotions triggered by a word or phrase.
denotative meaning
the literal or dictionary meaning of a word or phrase
main idea
The main theme of a text
supporting ideas
smaller ideas that help support your main idea
word families
groups of words that have the same ending sound (rime) but a different beginning
sound (onset), such as can, man, fan.
spelling patterns
knowledge of common letter patterns that skilled readers use rapidly and accurately to
associate with sounds (ex.: CVC, CV, VCe, CVVC)
miscue analysis
assessment, reading errors (miscues) are the basis for determining the strengths and
weaknesses of students' decoding ability and word analysis skills (correction, insertion,
omission, repetition, reversal, substitution)
Cue system
The Three Cueing System model suggests that there are three cues that good readers
make use of to identify individual words in text (Sementics, Syntax, Grapho-phono)
Cue System semantics
(Context) The range of possible words is restricted by the context, so when children
come to a word they do not know, they can "guess" based upon context (ex.; using a
picture to help identify a word)
Cue Systems syntax
Making an even more educated guess about individual words in the passage based upon
word placement and or word order
Cue Systems Grapho-phono
Part of the cue system - the letter-sound information. To decode text, good readers use
the orthographic information the visual information contained in the letters in the word
consonant blend
constists of two or more consonants sounded together in such a way that each is heardlike the blend of b and l in the word blend.
dipthong
2 vowels in which the sound begins at the first vowel and moves toward the sound of the
second vowel (snout=ou/boy=oy)
phonemic awareness
The ability to hear, identify,and manipulate the individual sounds, phonemes, in oral
language.
phonics
n. The study of the sounds of the letters of the alphabet. Reading instruction that
teaches sound-symbol correspondences
root word
A word to which prefixes and suffixes can be added (example: HELP - helpful,
unhelpful, helpless, helper)
closed syllable
a syllable that ends in a consonant sound
Examples: rake, mean/ing
open syllable
a syllable ending in a vowel sound (e.g., sea). They also produce long vowel sounds (e.g.,
frozen)
syllable
a unit of spoken language larger than a phoneme, a vowel or a group of letters
containing one vowel sound
Think Alouds
verbalizing aloud the thought processes present as one reads a selection orally; to
enhance children's comprehension monitioring;used with all levels of recipricoal
teaching
Phonological Awareness
an awareness of an the ability to manipulate the sounds of spoken words; it is a broad
term that includes indentifying and making rhymes, recognizing alliteration, identifying
and working with syllables in spoken words, identifying and working with onsets and
rhymes in spoken syllables.
Encode
To change a message into symbols. Changing oral language into writing
Decode
This is when we analyze a spoken or written word to discover its pronunciation or
meaning.
synthetic phonics
A part-to-whole phonics approach to reading instruction in which the student learns the
sounds represented by letters and letter combinations, blends these sounds to
pronounce words, and finally identifies which phonic generalizations apply (a.k.a.
inductive phonics, Bottoms-Up)
Analytic phonics
Whole to part approach to word study- first taught a number of sight words, then
relevant phonetic generalizations, which are applied to other words; deductive
phonics
(a.k.a. implicit phonics)
rimes
Part of a syllable that contains the vowel and all that follows it (i.e., the rime of bag is ag
and the rime of swim is im.)
onsets
initial consonant sound of a syllable (the onset of bat is b-; of swim is sw-).
analogic phonics
taugh to notice patterns in words known to figure out other words; spelling based and
making words
embedded phonics
providing phonics instruction while using whole text or passages. Children begin with
the use of whole texts involving shared literacy activities with an adult and move to the
identification of phrases and words and the examination of word parts. Emphasis on
meaning is maintained even as children examine word parts, because the purpose is to
help them see the patterns in the language so they can apply the knowledge to new
situations. (Strickland, D.S. (1998). Teaching Phonics Today: A Primer for Educators)
isolated phonics
This type of instruction would fall under the definition of systematic phonics where
instruction is given a part-to-whole approach. Students learn the sounds, represented by
letters and letter combinations, blend these sounds to pronounce words, and finally
identify which phonic generalizations apply.
word sorts
a vocabulary-development and word-study activity in which words on cards are grouped
according to designated categories, as by spelling patterns, vowel sounds, shared
meanings, etc.
text structure
the way text is organized; cause/effect, problem/solution, etc.
context clue
is information from the immediate sentence, paragraph, or surrounding words that
might help readers determine the meaning and/or pronunciation of an unknown word.
expository text
Text written to explain and convey information about a specific topic. Contrasts with
narrative text.
narrative text
A text that tells a story
story grammar
Narrative framework that specifies the underlying relationship of the story components.
The internal structure of a story. (story grammar= setting+episode structure) Each story
begins with an introduction contained in the setting, and episode consists of an
initiating event, and internal response, a plan, an attempt;consequence;reaction.
alphabetic principle
an understanding that letters and letter patterns represent the sounds of spoken words.
consonant
a speech sound that is not a vowel
vowel
the letters a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes y
short vowel
sounds represented by vowel letter as in the word bat.
long vowel
A vowel that says its name
consonant digraph
a consonant cluster that makes only one sound (sh, ch, th, wh, ph)
vowel digraph
consists of two vowels that together represent one sound- like the oa in boart tht makes
the long o sound.
r-controlled vowel
a vowel followed by an r in the same syllable EX-car, fir, or, hurt, perch
schwa
The unaccented vowel and unaccented syllable. Makes an "uh" sound. Ex: The u is
schwa in medium.
phonograms
also called rimes- letter patterns that help form word families (ad, at, ack, ag an ap ess,
en). A grapheme whih represent a phoneme or compbination of phonemes.
phoneme
in a spoken language, the smallest distinctive sound unit
grapheme
letter or letters that represent one phoneme (CAT, c-a-t, contains 3 graphemes)
morpheme
in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word
(such as a prefix)
bound morpheme
morpheme that only has meaning when attached to a word (like the 'un' in unlikely)
free morpheme
a morpheme that can occur alone (ex. ship; in "shipment"
morphology
the study of word formation and structure
morphemic analysis
The study of the meaningful parts of a word including its prefix, root, and suffix
prefix
a syllable or word that comes before a root word to change its meaning
affix
a prefix or suffix (a morpheme that is added to a stem or base to give it a new meaning)
suffix
an affix that is added at the end of the word
inflected endings
Suffixes that change the verb tense (walk, walked, walking) or number (dogs, boxes) of a
word
antonym
a word that means the opposite of another word
synonym
Words that have similar or the same meaning
homonym
two words are homonyms if they are pronounced or spelled the same way but have
different meanings
homophone
One of two or more words pronounced alike, but different in spelling or meaning (e.g.,
hair/hare, scale (fish)/scale (musical)).
homograph
two words that have the same spelling but different meanings (ie. the bow in your hair
and the bow with the arrow)
root words
Main part of the word that provides the word's basic meaning also known as 'base
words'.
grammar
in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand
others
figurative language
Writing or speech that is used to create vivid impressions by setting up comparisons
between dissimilar things, [examples are metaphor, simile, and personification.
literal language
A form of language in which writers and speakers mean exactly what their words denote.
analogy
drawing a comparison in order to show a similarity in some respect
simile
a figure of speech that expresses a resemblance between things of different kinds
(usually formed with 'like' or 'as')
metaphor
a comparison without using like or as (ex. You are my sunshine.)
allegory
A narrative in which the characters and events represent an idea or truth about life in
general.
autobiography
A narrative in which the author writes about his/her own life
biography
A narrative in which an author writes about another person's life
comedy
A genre of literature in which life is dealt with in a humorous manner, often poking fun
at people's mistakes
drama (play)
Uses dialogue to present its message to the audience and is meant to be performed
essay
a nonfiction piece that is often short and used to express the writer's opinion about a
topic of to share info on a dubject
Fable
A short stroy, often with animals as the main characters, that teaches a moral or lesson
to the reader
Fantasy
A genre of literature in which the story is set in an imaginary world, involving magic or
adventure in which the characters often have supernatural powers
Folktale
A story that has been passed down orrally form one generation to another; the
characters usually follow the extreme (all good or all bad) and in the end are rewarded
or punished as they deserve.
Myth
A story that was created to explain some natural force of nature, religious belief, or
social phenomenon. The gods and goddesses have supernatural powers but the human
characters often do not
novel
A fictional narrative of book length in which characters and plot are developed in a
somewhat realistic manner
Parable
A simple, short story thats used to explain a belief, a moral, or spiritual lesson
poetry
literary work which uses colorful concise, rhythmic language and focuses on the
expression of ideas or emotions
Prose
Literary work that is in ordinary form and uses the familiar structure of spoken
language, sentence after sentence
Realism
Writing in which the reality of life is shown
Science Fiction
A genre of literature in which real or imaginary scientific developents and concepts are
prevalent and is often set in the future
Short Story
A narrative that can be read in one sitting. Has few characters and often one conflict or
problem. The characters often go though some sort of change by the end of the story
Tall Tale
A humorous and exaggerated story often based upon the life of a real person. The
exaggerations increase and build until the character can achieve impossible tasks
Tragedy
A genre of literature in which there is a downfall of the hero due to a tragic flaw or
personal characteristic; often ends with an unhappy ending.
Pace
How the details are placed and how transitions are made within the story. the function
that moves along the story
Tone
the attitude or feeling that a pieve of literature conveys through the characters, word
choice, and writing style. EX. humorous, sad, serious,etc
Point of View POV
Who is telling the story or what angle the story is being told from. The POW impacts
reader response to the story and the characters.
Objective (POV)
The story is told through actions and dialogue; the reader must infer what the characters
think and feel. The narrator is a detached observer.
Third Person (POV)
The story is told through an outside voice ( the narrator is NOT one of the characters)
but informs the reader about how the characters feel.
First Person (POV)
The story is told through an inside voice ( the narrator is participating in the sotry as a
character). The reader receives info from a narrator who is directly involved in the
action, and the narrator may or may not be reliable; narrator is biased
Omniscient
The story is told be a narrator who is all knowing and knows everything about all the
characters (inner thoughts included.
Limited Omniscient
The story is told by a narrator whose knowledge is limited to knowing all inner thoughts
and feelings of one character (major or minor)
Antagonist
The person or force that works against the hero in the story
Protagonist
The main character in the story who is often good or possesses heroic qualities
Theme
A view on life and of how people conduct themselves. In a narrative, the theme is not
directly presented but left up to the reader to extract from the characters/events/setting
Plot
The sequence of events within a story. The plot is the reason that the events occur w. in a
story. Has 8 elements
Exposition (plot element)
The intro of the story in which the reader is introduced to the setting, the tone, the
characters, and initial understanding of the story
Inciting force
the character or event that triggers the central conflict
Conflict
The events from which the plost is derived. There are 5 types of conflict.
Rising action
The series of events that builds up from the conflict ending with the climax
Crisis
When the conflict reaches a turning point and the two opposing forces in the story met.
The crisis is when the conflict is most intense and occurs either right before or at the
same time as the climax
Climax
The point at which the outcome of the conflict can be predicted. It is the highest point of
the story and often the one with the greatest emotion
Falling action
the series of events that occur after the climax which wrap up the story
Resolution
The conclusion of the story and the rounding out of action
Man VS. Man
Conflict in which one person is pitted against another
man vs. nature
Conflict in which a person or people have a run-in w. the forces of nature
Man vs. Society
Conflict in which societal values and custons are challenged by a person
Man vs. Self
Conclict that centers around internal struggles of a character; a test of the values and
inner strength of a character
Man vs. Fate
Conflict in which the problem or struggle appears to be far beyond the person's control
Nonfiction
Writing in which the information is presented as a fact or as a truth. Does not
necessarily mean that the info is accurate or valid. Examples: Essays, journals,
textbooks, book reports, letters, menus
Poetry
A creative form of writing. Meant to be read aloud. Written in lines called stanzas.
Poetry has many techniques that are utilized
Rhyme
A scheme of low words organized into patterns: Internal Rhyme and End rhyme
Meter
The rhythm of the poem; the accented and unaccented syllables
Alliteration
A repetition of the beginning consonant sound. Ex. The green grass grows.
Assonance
The repetition of vowel sounds. Ex. What's the story morning glory
Consonance
The repetition of consonant sounds anywhere within words.
Onomatopoeia
When a word sound relates to it's meaning. Ex. Buzz, hiss, woof, zip, swish
Repetition
The stating of a word or phrase more than once which adds rhythm or focus.
Iambic
An unaccented syllable followed by an accented syllable (da-dum, da-dum)
Trochaic
An accented syllable followed by an unaccented syllable (dum-da, dum-da) EX. PETer
PETer, PUMPkin, EATer
Spondaic
Two accented syllables (dum-dum, dum-dum)
Anapestic
Two unaccted syllables followed by an accented syllable (da-da-dum, da-da-dum) Twas
the NIGHT before CHRISTmas and ALL through the HOUSE
Dactylic
An accented syllable followed by two unaccented syllables (dum-da-da, dum-da-da)
Verse
A line of poetry written in meter and named for hte number of feet per line. there are 8
common types
Stanza
The sections or lines of a poem. There are six common stanzas: couplet: 2, triplet: 3,
Quatrain: 4, sestet: 6, septet: 7, octane:8
Ballad
A poem that tells a story usually written in quatrains.
Blank Verse
A poem that is unrhymed but as meter. Each line is usually 10 syllables
Cinquain
Poems that are five lines in length. There can be both syllable and word cinquains
Couplet
Two lines of verse that often rhyme an convey on complete idea
Elegy
A poem about death or the sadness related to the death of an important person
Epic
A poem of length proportions that is a story or tells the adventures of a hero; it must
have a hero and villlain
Free Verse
A poem with out meter or rhyme scheme
Haiku
A form of Japanese peotry often about nature. It contains stanzas of three lines with
5,7,5 syllables
Limerick
A humorous poem of 5 lines. Lines 1,2,5 rhyme and lines 3 and 4 rhyme
Lyric
A short poem with personal feeling; most often put to music
Ode
Long lyric with imagery and full of poetic devices
Sonnet
A 14 line poem that states the poet's personal feelings. Shakespearean(english) and
Petrarchan (Italian)
Acrostic
The letters of a word are used to begin each line in the poem, can be comprised of
adjectives or phrases
Letter Knowledge
Giving sounds for an individual letter and writing letters in response to their individual
sounds
Logographic foundation
reading familiar and common words (sight words)
Alphabetic foundation
reading aloud and having the studetn write the letter spoken based upon the sound
spoken or the letter name uttered
Print Concepts
Letters have sounds, and they form words
Phonemic awareness
Speech is broken into individual sounds; in the English language there are 44 found
within the 26 letters of the alphabet. Exposure to nursery rhymes or common jingles
Alphabetic Principle
Letters represent sound and speech. Exposure to text and print
Word identification
Various strategies are used to recognize vocab. Decoding by sound decoding by
comparison to known words
Fluency
Reading is done with expression, is automatic and flowing (does not require
comprehension)
comprehension
Critical thinking and processing of content read.
Context clues
The ability to use words, meanings, and context to extract the meanings of unknown
words.
Semantic Clues
Meaning. Based upon the subject read, the reader can determine what type of language
will be used
Syntactic clues
Word Order. Looking at the order and structure of words the reader can determine
meaning based upon the part of speech.
Symbolic Clues
Pictures. Illustrations and graphics can provide assistance in the identification of words
Word structure clues
Recognizing frequent letter groups.
Analogy clues
Readers are able to draw connections between patterns, simple words, and syllables.
Prefix
word or letters placed at the beginning of a root or base words to create a new word. EX
un-, pre-,nonSuffix
Morpheme added to the end of a root or base word to form a new word EX -ing,-ertion,-ly
homonym
when two words that have the same pronunciation and spelling but different meanings:
Mouse (animal or computer) Mean (rude or average)
homophone
when two words that have the same pronunciation but are spelled differently. EX two,
too, to
homograph
when words have the same spelling but different meanings and may or may not be
pronounced differently. EX dove (bird and swimming)
phoneme
A distinct unit of sound b=buh
Hyperbole
an exaggeration or overstatement that may or may not be realistic and is not meant to
be taken literally
Imagery
appeals to the readers senses
Idiom
when words are used in a special way that is different than their literal meaning. To steal
one's thunder, or cut corners
Phonology (Speech Sounds)
Phonology: The rule system within a language by which phonemes can be sequenced,
combined, and pronounced to make words.
-eg: No English word begins with the
sound ng, the sounds p and k are never adjacent in the same syllable
Orthography (Parts, prefix, root, suffix)
A writing system for representing language. Every English word ending in v is spelled
with -ve
Discourse: How we tie it all together
Organizational conventions in longer segments of oral or written language. (Paragraph
structure; cohesive ties; genre conventions such as story structure.
Interrelatedness between print and speech
- print is speech written down
Language Experience Approach
A student's dictated composition is written by the teacher and used as a text for reading
instruction; it is generally used with beginning readers.
Shared Writing
In shared writing, the teacher and students compose text together, with both
contributing their thoughts and ideas to the process, while the teacher acts as scribe,
writing the text as it is composed.
Morning Message
daily literacy routine that teachers use to teach literacy concepts, strategies and skills.
Usually consists of a friendly letter to the class about what will happen during the day.
Interactive Writing
approach to writing in which students and teachers co-construct text during explicit
demonstration of writing and writing strategies; they individually share the pen by
contributing letters, words, or phrases to the written piece
Environmental print
method for teaching emergent literacy
the print we see in our environment outside of
books- such as signs, labels, symbols, television shows, games etc...
One to one correspondence
Finger pointing to match word to word
Directionality of Print
Another critical pre-reading skill..., read left to right and top to bottom, front to back.
Tracking is evidence that it has been learned.
Environmental Influences that affect students development of print awareness.
Socio-economic status, parent education level, prior reading experiences (being read to,
talked to, books in the home, etc)
Importance of students ability to differentiate between words and spaces
...
Concepts of Print
print represents spoken language; print is directional from left to right and top to
bottom; books are read from front to back; the strings of letters separated by spaces in
text are words, and individual letters are different from words; sentences begin with
capital letters and end with periods, etc.....
Instructional Strategies for Teaching Letter Recognition
(Graphemes)-letter name (Phonemes-letter sounds)
How do you assess print awareness?
Hand child a book and ask them where is the front and back, what is a word, identify
capital letters, punctuation marks. Have them turn page of book and point where to
start reading.
Stages of Phonemic Awareness
From Simple to difficultPhonological awareness
Ability to identify, think about and manipulate the parts of words, including syllables,
onsets and rimes and phonemes.
Progression of Phonological Skills
Simple to difficult- Phonemes, onset-rime, syllables, words, sentences
Speech Perception
Is a receptive language skill.- ability to distinguish between words that sound almost the
same and to recognize any word that has been said. Unconscious skill.
Speech production
expressive language skill. Includes articulation or pronunciation of speech sounds and
speech-sound sequences- unconscious skill
Progression of Oral Language Development
0-3 Months coo, cries, smiles, 4-6 Months babbles are more speech like may include
sounds such as p, b, m. 7mo-1 year Imitates different speech sounds, longer groups of
sounds, begins saying words such as bye, and mama, dada
Progression of Oral Language Dev. continued
1-2 years= uses more words each month. Puts two words together in to phrases, asks
questions, Where Daddy? 2-3 yrs= words for almost everything uses 2-3 words together
more easily understood
Progession of Oral Language Dev. continued
3-4 Yrs- Says sentences with four or more words, talks about activities and or people is
easily understood by all 4-5 yrs= Uses clear voice, detailed sentences, sticks to topic,
uses appropriate grammar, says most sounds correctly
Ages of Phonological Awareness
Age 4 Rote imitation and enjoyment of rhyme and alliteration, Age 5 Rhyme
recognition- odd word out, recognition of phonemic changes in words, Hey diddle
fiddle- (child would recognize not correct) Clapping and counting syllables
Ages of Phonological Awareness continued 5 1/2
Distinguishing and remembering separte phonemes in a series. Blending onset and
rime- ch urch, Producing a rhyme- Tell me word that rhymes with ---. MATCHING
INITIAL SOUNDS, ISOLATING AN INITIAL SOUND. SAY THE first sound in Hop
Age 6 Phonological Awareness
Compound word deletion say butterfly but don't say butter. Syllable deletion: Say
parsnip but don't say par. Blending of two and three phonemes- m oo, sh ut, g ow n,
Phoneme segmentation of words that have simple syllables with two or three phonemesno blends h i p, f o g, (move a chip for each sound)
Phonological Awareness age 6 1/2
Phoneme segmentation of words that have up to three or four phonemes (include
blends) Tap fingers for each sound, Phoneme substitution to build new words that have
simple syllables (no blends) Change the /j/ in cage to /n/
Phonological Awareness age 7
Sound deletion in initial and final positions. Say heat without the h, say make with out
the k
Phonological Awareness age 8
Sound deletion in initial position, include blends
Say Frank without the f=
Phonological Awareness age 9
Sound deletion (medial and final blend positions) Say snail without the n. Say fork
without the k
Progression of phonics instruction
1st- Word awareness- tracking the words in sentences
2nd- Responsiveness to rhyme
and alliteration
3rd-stllable awareness=counting, tapping, blending or segmenting a
word into syllables
Progression of phonics instruction part 2
4th Onset and Rime manipulation- ability to produce a rhyming word depends on
understanding that rhyming words have the same rime. Recognizing is much easier than
producing a rhyme. Phoneme awarenessProgression of phonics instruction part 3
Phoneme awareness: Identify and match the initial sounds in words, then final and mid.
-Segment and produce the initial sound then the final and middle sound. -blend sounds
into words- segment the phonemes in two or 3 sound words moving to 4 and 5 sound
words as student becomes proficient. - Manipulate phonemes by removing, adding or
substituting sound.
Phonological awareness activities for preschool or beginning Kindergarten
1. Read aloud books w/ rhyme and alliteration, 2 Rhyme Judgment- give examples then
ask what two words rhyme in this sentence? 3. Rhyme matching- what word rhymes
with bake? Corn , cow, steak? 4. Alliteration- Peter Piper, etc, make up new ones. 5.
Syllable blending- say a 2 syllable word slowly then have them guess what word you are
saying
Phonological awareness activities for preschool or beginning Kindergarten cont'd
6. Syllable deletion- break a two syllable word into parts eg: snowflake. What word do I
have without flake? 7. Syllable counting: have them tap syllables when you give them a
word. 8. Initial sound matching: Match first names with same beginning sounds. 9.
Onset-rime division: say whole word and divide into two parts- use manipulatives 10Rhyme production: say 3 words that rhyme and have students give 4th All activities
must be modeled!!!! A lot!
Assessment of Phonological skills
Phoneme segmentation and blending tasks are the most reliable and accurate predictors
as well as letter recognition. Students whose PA is underdeveloped will also have
difficulty associating phonemes with graphemes during word reading and spelling tasks
Six Syllable types
open, closed, VCe, vowel teams, r-controlled, consonant-le, 1. closed syllable (CVC):
ends in at least one consonant; vowel is short (one vowel) [mag/net, pump/kin, at]
2.
open syllable (CV): ends in one vowel; vowel is long [no, be, me, BA/con]
3. vowelconsonant-e (VCe or CVCe): ends in one vowel, one consonant, and a final e. Final e is
silent and the vowel is usually long [cake, man/DATE]
4. vowel +r syllable: has an r
after the vowel, vowel makes an unexpected sound [car, star, bird, fern]
5. vowel pair
syllable: has two adjacent vowels. each vowel pair syllable must be learned individually
[tea, bee, teach]
6. final stable syllable
Why teach syllables?
Knowing the syllable types helps readers know whether a vowel is long, short, a
dipthong, r controlled or whether endings have been added.
Six Syllable types acronym
CLOVER C-closed, L for le (ending), o for open (long vowel at end of syllable) v for
vowel pair eg:teacup (two vowels go walking), e for magic/silent e, and r for r controlled.
Progression of teaching 6 syllable types
1. Closed 2. Vowel consonant e 3. Open syllables, 4. Vowel teams, 5 Vowel _r or r
controlled 6 Consonant Le
Schwa
Unstressed, deemphasized sound that closely resembles the short u sound, it is written
as an upside down e. Ex.) sounds like the a in about
Background Knowledge and comprehension
Comprehension is increased when the reader has some background knowledge of the
subject they are reading about- more background knowledge the more comprehension
can take place
KWL Chart
- activating prior knowledge
K: know W: want to know L: learn & still want to
learn
Semantic Map
a graphic organizer that uses lines and circles to organize information according to
categories
Strategies to activate students prior knowledge
KWL Charts, semantic maps, Anticipation Guides, Browsing, predictions="Anticipatory
set"
Building Background knowledge
essential to comprehending reading; students' knowledge of broader concepts.
Information contained in the text is compared with and filtered by this. Each reader's
unique collection of background knowledge and experiences has the effect of
emphasizing, disregarding, and connecting to different aspects of texts to create an
individual interpretation.
Role Vocabulary Plays in Comprehension
Comprehension is highly dependent on knowledge of word meanings. Knowledge of a
word is learned gradually after multiple exposures to words in speech and print.
Systematic, explicit instruction to develop comprehension skills
Build background knowledge, think alouds, modeling, questioning before, during, after.
Critical thinking-finding the deeper meaning.
DRTA
Stands for directed reading thinking activity.
This teacher directed strategy helps
students to establish a purpose for reading a story or reading expository writing from a
content book.
The teacher models the process of creating and correcting predictions as
the story progresses to strengthen comprehension.
Step 1: sample the text to develop
background knowledge and develop hypothesis about content of the text.
Step 2:
students make predictions based on their sampling of the text.
Step 3: confirm or
correct predictions by reading the text and engaging in follow up activities to
corroborate if the predictions were correct.
Graphic Organizers
a strategy for comprehension that helps readers focus on text structure, show
relationships within text, organize ideas for better summarizing, and illustrate concepts
(ex: Venn diagrams, story maps, story webs)
Ways to use Graphic organizers
-guide students through a text, elicit what students already know about a topic, assist
students in summarizing what they have read and prepare students for writing
Types of graphic organizers
Attribute Wheel, Classification example map, process (time sequence Map),
reason/explanation map, compare/contrast paragraph or essay
Components of fluency
accuracy, automaticity, rate, and prosody
Strategies to develop and improve fluency
use of word lists, phrases and passages at appropriate instructional level, Modeling of
fluent reading, paired reading, echo reading, readers theater
Instructional Strategies to Improve Oral Reading Fluency
Repeated Readings on independent (95% accuracy) level up to 4 times for each passage.
Modeling by an adult then have students read same passage echo/paired reading where
students read chorally together or one after the other. Repeated reading w/ guidanceone on one with teacher.
Methods of assessing fluency
Formal measurement would be Timed passages- Words read per minute. Graph on a
chart. Informally student reads to teacher and making a judgment-should use formal
measures
Comprehension Overview
Good readers are purposeful and active as they read.
Comprehension Strategies
Monitoring comprehension: use graphic organizers, answering questions- generating
questions, recognizing story structure & summarizing
Explicit teaching of comprehension strategies
Research shows that explicit teaching techniques are effective. In explicit instruction,
teachers tell readers why and when they should use strategies & how to apply them
Steps of Explicit Instruction of Comprehension strategies
Direct explanation, teacher modeling "thinking aloud", guided practice and application.
Direct Explanation
The teacher explains to the students why the strategy helps comprehension and when to
apply the strategy
Modeling (comprehension strategy)
The teacher models, or demonstrates how to apply the strategy, usually by "thinking
aloud" while reading the text that the students are using
Guided Practice
The teacher guides and assists students as they learn how and when to apply the
strategy.
Application
The teacher helps students practice the strategy until they can apply it independently
Relationship between fluency and comprehension
Fluency is the bridge between word recognition and comprehension. When a student
can break text into meaningful chunks, read with expression- they free up cognitive desk
space and they are able to think about what they are reading instead of just focusing on
decoding.
Vocabulary instruction
Most vocabulary is learned indirectly and some must be taught directly
Indirect Vocabulary instruction
-students are engaged is oral language daily- they hear new and interesting words- the
more oral language experiences children have the more word meanings they learn.
Adults reading to them- engages child in a book discussion after reading- helps them
learn new words & concepts to relate them to their prior knowledge and experience
Indirect Vocab instruction cont'd
Reading extensively on their own- the more they read on their own, the more words they
encounter and the more word meanings they learn
Direct Vocab instruction
Specific Word instruction and word learning strategies
Specific word instruction
-deepens students knowledge of word meanings. Helps both vocabulary learning and
reading comprehension- best when students are provided over an extended period of
time and they work actively wit the words. Use in different contexts- more likely they are
to learn the words. Repeated exposure
Word learning strategies
-use of dictionaries & other reference aids, use information about word parts to figure
out the meanings of words in text and how to use context clues to determine word
meanings.
Use of dictionaries
Students need to know how to use dictionaries, glossaries, and thesauruses to broaden
and deepen their knowledge of words, even though these resources can be difficult to
use. The most helpful dictionaries include sentences providing clear examples of word
meanings in context
Using word parts Knowing some common prefixes and suffixes, basewords, and root words can help
students learn the meanings of man new words.
Four most common prefixes
un, re, in & dis- have important clues about the meaning of about two thirds of all
English words that have prefixes. They have clear meanings, -un means not and re
means again
Word Relationships
It is best when teaching new words to show relationships between words (Antonyms,
synonyms, etc)
Etymology
Etymology: Latin etymologia "etymology," from Greek etymon "true meaning of a word"
and Greek -logia "study, science," from etymos "true" and logos "word, reason"
: the
history of a word shown by tracing it or its parts back to the earliest known forms and
meanings both in its own language and any other language from which it or its parts
may have been taken
Word parts - Latin and Greek
Latin and Greek words for m a large proportion of the new vocabulary that students
encounter in their content area textbooks.
Criteria to be used when selecting words for Vocab instruction
Tier 2 words= words that students will need to know in order to comprehend/function.
Teach approximately 8-10 a week- Important words- words needed for understanding a
concept or the text. Useful words- words that students are likely to see again and again.
Difficult words- words that are difficult for students to understand
Teaching Words with multiple meanings
Words with multiple meanings and idiomatic expressions are difficult for students.
Dictionaries may provide to many definitions and students will have difficulty trying to
figure out what context to use.
How do prefixes, suffixes and roots affect the meaning of English words?
changes their type of word from and adjective to a noun or verb
Purpose of Phonemic Awareness
To identify and manipulate the individual sounds in words (PA is under the umbrella of
Phonological awareness.
Purpose of Phonological awareness
Has a broad purpose: Includes identifying and manipulating larger parts of spoken
language; words, onset rime, as well as phonemes. Also encompasses rhyming,
alliteration and intonation
Phonological awareness is evidenced by
Identifying and making oral rhymes, identifying and working with syllables, identifying
and working with onsets and rimes in spoken syllables or one syllable words. Identifying
and working with individual phonemes in spoken words.
Activities to Build Phonemic Awareness
Phoneme isolation: Recognize individual sounds in words.What is the first sound in Van
(V)
Phoneme Identity- Children recognize same sounds in different words: What
sound is the same in fix, fall and fun
Activities to build phonemic awareness contd
Phoneme categorizations; Children recognize the word in a set of three or four words
that has the odd sound: "Which word doesn't belong? Bus, bun, rug?
Phoneme
blending: Children listen to a sequence of separately spoken phonemes and the combine
the phonemes to form a word . What word is b/i/g- now let's write the sounds in big ,
then write word on board and read word
Activities to build phonemic awareness cont'd
Phoneme segmentation: Children break a word into its separate sounds, saying each
sound as they tap out or count it. Then they write and read the word. "How many
sounds are in grab? g/r/a/b that's right 4. Lets write the sounds ins grab /g/ write g /r/
write r /a/ write a /b/ write b Now we are going to read the word grab
Activities to build phonemic awareness cont'd
Phoneme deletion: Children recognize the word that remains when a phoneme is
removed from another word. What is smile without the /S/ Children: smile without the
/s/ is mile
Activities to build phonemic awareness cont'd
Phoneme addition:Children make a new word by adding a phoneme to an existing word.
"What word do you have if you add /s/ to the beginning of park? Children would
respond Spark
Activities to build phonemic awareness cont'd
Phoneme substitution: Children substitute one phoneme for another to make a new
word. "The word is bug, Change the /g/ to n/ whats the new word= bun
When is phonemic awareness instruction most effective
When children are taught to manipulate phonemes by using the letters of the alphabet.
Teaching sounds along with the letters of the alphabet is important because it helps
children to see how phonemic awareness relates their reading and writing. Learning to
blend phonemes with letters helps children read words. Learning to segment sounds
helps them spell words.
Which methods of phonemic awareness instruction will have the greatest impact on my
students learning to read?
You can use a variety of methods but specifically blending and segmenting phonemes in
words is likely to produce greater benefits to your students than teaching several types
of manipulation.
Goal of phonics instruction
Is to help children learn and use the alphabetic principle- the understanding that there
are systematic and predictable relationships between written letters and spoken sounds.
Levels of vocabulary knowledge
Unknown, Acquainted and established. Students can usually get by w/ some words at
the unknown or acquainted levels. To understand the text fully students need to have an
established level of knowledge for most of the words that they read
Unknown, Acquainted and Established Vocab
Unknown= The word is completely unfamiliar and its meaning is unknown.
Acquainted= the word is somewhat familiar, the student has some idea of its basic
meaning. Established: The word is very familiar; the student can immediately recognize
its meaning and use the word correctly.
Four Different kinds of word learning have been identified
Learning a new meaning for a known word, 2. Learning the meaning for a new word
representing and known concept. Learning the meaning of a new word representing and
unknown concept and 4, clarifying and enriching the meaning of a known word.
Clarifying and enriching the meaning of a known word.
The student is learning finer, more subtle distinctions or connotations, in the meaning
and usage of words. For example, he is learning the differences between running,
jogging, trotting, dashing and sprinting.
Other ways to help students develop vocabulary
Foster word consciousness- awareness and interest in words- call attention to the way
authors choose words to convey particular meanings. Encourage them to play with
words such as puns or palindromes. Help them research a words origin or history.
Reciprocal Teaching
4 Comprehension strategies- Asking questions about the text they are reading,
summarizing parts of the text, clarifying words and sentences they don't understand and
predicting what might occur next in the text.
Other Research based Comprehension strategies
Making use of prior knowledge and Using mental imagery.
Universal Grammar
Noam Chomsky's theory that all the world's languages share a common underlying
structure.
Language acquisition v. Language learning
Acquisition: subconscious, has an emphasis on communication and reception, results in
fluency.
Learning: conscious, has an increased emphasis on syntax and grammar, and
fluency is not a guarantee.
Chomsky's 6 Universal stages governing language acquisition
prelinguistic, holophrastic, two-word, telegraphic, intermediate development, and adult
Prelinguistic stage
Silent period of language acquisition in which there is only crying and cooing.
Holophrastic stage
Period of language acquisition in which there is one-word communication
Telegraphic stage
Period of language acquisition in which the child may omit some syllables in words,
substitute sounds, and use only a pivot word with other words--much like a telegram
(about 28 months old)
Intermediate development stage
Period of language acquisition following the telegraphic stage and prior to the adult
stage
Jerome Bruner
...holds that while there may be a Language Acquisition Device (LAD) as Chomsky
suggests, there must also be a LASS, Language Acquisition Support System.
John Macnamara
...holds that children have an innate capacity to read meaning into social situations,
rather than having an in-built language device, that makes them capable of
understanding language.
The 3 parts of Language acquisition
Receptive, Cognitive, Expressive
Receptive language
The listener or reader is able to attend to, process, comprehend, retain, and/or integrate
spoken or written language.
Phonemic awareness
the ability to notice, think about, and manipulate the individual sound in words
Phonemes
the sound-symbol correspondence of words
Phonological awareness
sound-symbol recognition
Cognitive language
That which is received is processed into memory, integrated with prior knowledge and
made a part of the knowledge of the individual from which new ideas and concepts can
be generated.
Expressive language
communication through speaking, writing, and/or gestures; selecting words, forming
them into ideas, and producing them through speaking, writing, or gesturing. It involves
word retrieval, rules of grammar, word and sentence structure, and word meaning.
Stephen Krashen's 5 Components of Second Language Acquisition Theory
1. The acquisition-learning hypothesis.
2. The monitor hypothesis
3. The natural
order hypothesis
4. The input hypothesis.
5. The affective filter hypothesis.
The acquisition-learning hypothesis
Krashen concluded that there are 2 systems of language acquisition that are
interdependent but related:
Acquired - relates to the unconscious aspect of language
acquisition. Speakers are less concerned with the structure of their utterances than with
the act of communicating.
Learned - relates to formal instruction. For example,
studying the rules of syntax
The Monitor Hypothesis
Illustrates how the acquired system is affected by the learned system.Second language
learners apply their understanding of learned grammar to edit, plan, and initiate their
communication.
The Natural Order Hypothesis
People learn language in four steps:
1. They produce single words.
2. They string
words together based on meaning and not syntax
3. They begin to identify elements
that begin and end sentences
4. They begin to identify different elements within
sentences and can rearrange them to produce questions.
The Input Hypothesis
Argues that learners of second languages progress along the natural order only when
they encounter second language input that is one step beyond where they are in the
natural order.
The Affective Filter Hypothesis
External factors such as motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety can act as a filter that
impedes language acquisition.
Pragmatics
Involves three primary communication skills:
1. Using language appropriately for
different social situations.
2. Changing one's language according to the listener's
needs
3. Following rules for conversing with others, such as taking turns, staying ontopic, not standing too close, and rephrasing when necessary
Ethno linguistics
A study of how language determines and reflects world views of people. Most
contemporary linguists stress the importance of one's language to the group and the
individual.
Analytic language
language that relies on word order to convey grammatical relationships, rather than
inflection (including inflectional morphemes)
Synthetic language
a language that makes considerable use of inflectional morphemes to convey
grammatical relationships, and relies less heavily on fixed word order.
4 Levels of communication
1. Concrete
2. Semi-concrete
3. Semi-abstract
4. Abstract
Concrete level of communication
The first way of preserving the memories of an event, the parts of a story, or the history
of a person, family, or place was with souvenirs, or physical reminders. Without artifacts
and living persons as remembrances, people began to search for another way to
document.
Semiconcrete level of communication
Pictography, the first stage in writing began to appear after speech began, about 30,000
BCE. Drawings in the sand, on cave walls, on papyrus scrolls on pottery, on cloth and
canvas, and later on paper communicated messages to their readers.
Semiabstract level of communication
The next-to-highest level of representation consisting of notches or symbols etched into
animal bones as a more sophisticated system of record keeping that pictography.
Abstract level of communication
The highest level of representation. Writing began in Mesopotamia as picture writing,
invented by the Sumerians. This evolved into cuneiform and eventually into a syllabic
alphabet.
Ideographic writing
Written abstract symbols that represent ideas--not just concrete objects and actions.
449 CE
The accepted date of the birth of the English language.
Inflection
The ending of a word signals the use of the word. (3rd p. singular, present tense: -s;
Plural of regular noun: -s; past tense of regular verbs: -ed...)
-er
Comparative case of adjectives
-est
Superlative case of adjectives
-ing
Indication of present participle of regular verbs and/or the progressive aspect of a verb.
-en
Indication of past participle of regular verbs and/or the perfect aspect of a verb (In weak
verbs this is indicated by -ed)
Nominative case
the category of nouns serving as the grammatical subject of a verb.
I, we
he, she,
who, they
Objective case
the category of nouns serving as the direct object of a verb.
me, us
him, her, whom,
them
Noun case
indicate the role of noun-phrases
Pronominal Genitive
mine, ours
your, yours
he she who
his, hers, its, theirs
Adjectival Genitive
my, our
your, your
him, her, whom
his, her, its, their
11 Processes of word formation
Affixation
Compounding
Conversion
Stress shift
Clipping
Acronym
formation
Blending
Backformation
Using brand
names
Onomatopoeia
Borrowing
Affixation
Adding a prefix or suffix to a word.
Compounding
Joining two or more words, like "whitewash" and "skateboard"
Conversion
Using a word of one category in another category without change; for instance, using the
noun "comb" also as the verb "comb"
Stress shift
Changing the stress from one syllable to another changes the meaning and the
pronunciation, as in "reCORD" (verb) and "REcord" (noun)
Clipping
Shortening words, as in "math" for "mathematics" and "doc" for "doctor"
Acronym formation
Forming a word from the initials of a group of words: AIDS (Acquired Immune
Deficiency Syndrome), NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)
Blending
Combining two words, such as "breakfast" and "lunch" to form "brunch"
Backformation
A suffix identifiable from other words is cut off from a base which has previously not
been a word: "burger" from "hamburger" or "self-destruct" from "self-destruction."
Different from clipping b/c the bit chopped off is a recognizable affix or word (ham or tion).
Onomatopoeia
Words invented to imitate the sound they represent.
Borrowing
Taking a word from another language. Ex: yam and tote are taken from African
languages, macho and spaghetti from European languages.
Semantics
The study of meaning as conveyed through language.
Ambiguity
The use of words that allow alternative interpretations. It may expand the literal
meaning of a passage, but it may promote errors in understanding.
Euphemism
The substitution of less-offensive words for words considered explicitly offensive. Using
"passed away" rather than "died."
Doublespeak
The misuse of language often in a deliberate and even calculating way in order to
mislead. Using "physical persuasion" rather than "torture."
Connotation
The impression or feeling a word gives beyond its exact meaning.
Jargon
The vocabulary of a particular profession or may refer to any speech or writing that one does
not understand.