A&P I
homeostasis- the maintenance of a stable internal environment
within tolerable limits
EXAM 1: STUDY GUIDE
adipose- (fat) areolar connective tissue modified to store nutrients;
a connective tissue consisting chiefly of fat cells
hypodermis- subcutaneous tissue just deep to the skin; consists of
adipose plus some areolar connective tissue
anatomy- - the science and study of the shape and structure of the
body and its parts
keratin- fibrous protein found in the epidermis, hair and nails that
makes those structures hard and water resistant; precursor is
keratohyaline
atoms- smallest particle of an elemental substance that exhibits the
properties of that element
lipid- organic compound formed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen;
examples are fat and cholesterol
carbohydrates- organic compound composed of hydrogen, oxygen
and carbon; starches, sugars, cellulose
lysosomes- organelles that originate from the golgi apparatus and
contain strong digestive enzymes.
cartilage- white, semiopaque, flexible connective tissue
microtubules- one of three types of rods in the cytoskeleton of the
cell, hollow tubes made of spherical protein that determine the cell
shape as well as the distribution of cellular organelles.
cell- structural unit of all living things
centrioles- minute body found near the nucleus of the cell; active in
cell division
- small, barrel-shaped organelles oriented at right angles to
each other; spindle apparatus for mitosis (cilia and flagella)
chromatin- structures in the nucleus that carry the hereditary
factors (genes).
mitochondria- cytoplasmic organelles responsible for ATP
generation for cellular activities
molecules- particles consisting of two or more atoms joined
together by chemical bonds
cuboidal- shaped like a cube
morphology- the branch of biology dealing with the form and
structure of organisms. The form and structure of an organism
considered as a whole
cytoplasm- the cellular material surrounding the nucleus and
enclosed by the plasma membrane
muscle- a tissue composed of cells or fibers, the contraction of
which produces movement in the body
endoplasmic reticulum- membranous network of tubular or saclike
channels in the cytoplasm of a cell
neuroglia- nonexcitable cells of neural tissue that support, protect,
and insulate the neurons; glial cells
cytoskeleton- cell skeleton, an elaborate series of rods running
through the cystol, supporting cellular structures and providing the
machinery to generate various cell movements
neuron- cell of the nervous system specialized to generate and
transmit electrical signals
endocrine- ductless glands that empty their hormonal products
directly into the blood
nucleic acid- class of organic molecules that includes DNA and
RNA
vascularized- richly supplied with blood vessels
nucleoli- dense spherical bodies in the cell nucleus involved with
ribosomal RNA synthesis and ribosomal subunit assembly.
epidermis- superficial layer of the skin; composed of keratinized
stratified squamous epithelium
- dark-staining spherical bodies found within the nucleus –
not membrane bounded
epithelium- pertaining to a primary tissue that covers the body
surface, lines its internal cavities, and forms glands
nucleus- control center of the cell, contains genetic material;
clusters of nerve cell bodies in the CNS.
exocrine- glands that have ducts through which their secretions are
carried to a particular site, "externally secreting"
fibroblast- young, actively mitotic cell that forms the fibers of
connective tissue
golgi apparatus- membranous system close to the cell nucleus that
packages protein secretions for export, packaged enzymes into
lysosomes for cellular use, and modifies proteins destined to
become part of cellular membranes
organ- a part of the body formed of two or more tissues and
adapted to carry out a specific function
organ system- a group of organs that work together to perform a
vital body function
organelles- small cellular structures that perform specific metabolic
functions for the cell as a whole
organism- the living animal that represent the sum total of all its
organ sytems working together to maintain life
papillary layer- the superficial layer of the dermis raised into
papillae that fit into corresponding depressions on the inner surface
of the epidermis
tissue- a group of cells, similar or dissimilar, plus the extracellular
matrix, all working together to perform a specific function
histology- the study of tissue
pathology- the science or the study of the origin, nature, and course
of diseases.
protein- complex substance containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, compses 10%-30% cell mass
lacuna/ lacunae- small space containing an osteocyte in bones or
chondrocyte in cartilage.
reticular- having the form of a net/net like, intricate or entangled;
pertaining to network.
canaliculi- a small duct or canal in the body, such as the minute
channels in compact bone. branching tubular passages radiating like
wheel spokes from each bone lacuna to connect with the canaliculi
of adjacent lacunae
reticular layer- the deeper layer of the dermis formed of
interlacing fasciculi of white fibrous tissue
lamella/ lamellae- a thin layer, plate, or membrane, esp any of the
calcified layers of which bone is formed
ribosomes- cytoplasmic organelles at which proteins are
synthesized
collagen - a large protein - the most abundant protein in the body
reticulin - a framework protein for lymphoid organs
squamous- thin and flat like a scale
stratified- consisting of several layers
stratum basale (Basal layer) - deepest layer of the 5 layers of the
epidermis; is attached to the underlying
dermis along a wavy borderline that
reminds one of corrugated cardboard.
stratum corneum (Horny layer) - the outermost layer of the
epidermis consisting of dead cells that
slough off; it is a broad zone 20 to 30
cell layers thick that accounts for up to
three-quarters of the epidermal
thickness.
elastin - an extracellular fiber that provides elasticity for tissues
that frequently change shape
centriole - a barrel-shaped cell structure / An associated pair of
centrioles, arranged perpendicularly and surrounded by an
amorphous mass of dense material (the pericentriolar material)
constitutes the compound structure known as the centrosome.
- make up the spindle apparatus that separates the
chromosomes during mitosis/meiosis, also the basis for cilia and
flagella
cytoskeleton - filaments that create cellular structure, give the cell
its shape and hold the organelles in position and moves them as
needed
2. ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY and Subdivisions:
Anatomy- the science and study of the shape and structure of the body and its parts
3 levels of observation:
 Gross anatomy: observed with the naked eye. resolution = 0.2 mm. other senses also important(touch, feel, sound, and odor).
 Microanatomy: observed with a microscope. Maximum magnification x1400. nucleus within a cell, but not the organelles.
 Ultra structural anatomy: electron microscope to observe organelles. Maximum magnification is x2,000,000.
Approaches to the study of Anatomy:
 Systemic Anatomy: study of individual organ systems
 Regional Anatomy: study of organ systems found within a particular region
 Comparative Anatomy: comparison of organ systems in different species
 Developmental Anatomy: changes in structure throughout the life cycle
 Surface Anatomy: comparison of surface landmarks with underlying structures
Physiology- Study of the functions of the body and its living processes
Approaches to the study of Physiology:
 Organismal physiology: functions and interrelated activities of the cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems.
 Cell physiology: functions of the cells themselves
Other subdivisions of Physiology:
 Renal physiology: concerns kidney function and urine production
 Neurophysiology: explains the working of the nervous system
 Cardiovascular physiology: examines the operation of the heart and blood vessel
Two systems for organizing our knowledge about living things on our planet.
 Taxonomy – Examines the differences between living organisms.
 Hierarchy of Biological Organization – Examines the similarities between all living organisms.
Taxonomy for the human:
 Kingdom: Animalia
 Family:
Hominidae
 Phylum:
 Genus:
Homo
Chordata
 Class:
Mammalia
 Species: sapiens
 Order:
Primates
 Homo sapiens
or
Homo sapiens
3. Different levels of structural organizations:
atoms -> molecules -> smooth muscle cell -> smooth muscle tissue -> epithelial tissue + smooth muscle tissue + connective tissue = blood vessel
"organ" -> cardiovascular system -> Human organism
1. chemical level- atoms combine to form molecules
2. cellular level- cell are made up of molecules
3. tissue level- tissues consists of similar or dissimilar types of cell all working together to perform a specific function
4. organ level- organs are made up of different types of tissues
5. organ system level- organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely
6. organismal level- human organisms are made up of many organ systems
4. Organ Systems of the Body and main functions:
a. Integumentary System: Skin and associated structures
Regulates temperature
Eliminates waste
Protects us from the environment
Supports sensory receptors
b. Skeletal System: Includes all bones of the body, associated cartilages, and joints
Supports & protects
Houses the cells that produce blood cells
Assists with body movements
Stores minerals
c. Muscular System: Types of muscle include: Skeletal, cardiac, smooth muscle
Assists with body movements
Maintains posture
Produces heat
d. Cardiovascular System: blood, heart, and vessels.
Distributes oxygen & nutrients to cells
Maintains proper pH (blood = 7.35-7.45)
Carries away CO2 and wastes
Regulates body temperature
e. Respiratory System: includes the lungs and associated air passageways
Provides oxygen
Regulates pH
Removes CO2
Filters, warms
f. Lymphatic & Immune Systems: include lymph, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, spleen
Collection of extracellular fluid
Transports fat from the digestive system to the
cardiovascular system
Immunity
g. Digestive System: GI tract, salivary glands, liver, gall bladder, pancreas
Breaks down & absorbs food
Eliminates solids and other wastes
h. Urinary System: kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra.
Produces, collects, and eliminates urine
Regulates pH
Regulates blood composition
Regulates blood cell count
Regulates extracellular fluids and electrolyte balance
i.
Reproductive System: gonads and organs of transport and storage
Reproduction
j. Nervous System: CNS, PNS, sensory organs
Regulates body activities through nerve impulses
Detection of internal/external stimuli
k. Endocrine System: all glands, tissues and cells that produce hormones.
Regulates body activities thru hormones transported in the
blood
5. Draw and explain an example of a Homeostatic feedback loop:
Integration of essential body functions
STIMULUS FEEDBACK LOOP: Maintaining homeostasis always requires a “stimulus feedback loop"
towards -> AFFERENT
away -> EFFERENT
POSITIVE FEEDBACK EXAMPLE: PARTURITION (childbirth) / Breastfeeding
6. Major Classes of Inorganic and Organic compounds:
Inorganic- are those that occur through geologic chemistry
Major Inorganic Molecules:
Water - world's best solvent
Oxygen - diatomic molecule that is a proton donor
Carbon Dioxide - A waste product created from the breakdown of carbon compounds in the process of generating energy (ATP)
Electrolytes - also known as minerals or salts (sodium, potassium, calcium, iron, magnesium)
Organic- compounds whose molecules contain carbon atom.
Major Classes:
monomers-polymers-role in the cell
1. carbohydrates - simple sugar, monosaccharide (glucose, fructose) - polysaccharide (glycogen, starch) - energy reservoir
2. fats - fatty acids - lipids, oils, waxes - cellular membranes, yolk
3. proteins - amino acids (peptides) - proteins (polypeptides) - enzymes, structure, egg white, meat
4. nucleic Acids - nucleotides - Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), Ribonucleic acid (RNA) - heredity, cell information
7. Cell - the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms.
Basic Activities of Cells:
1. connect body parts, form linings, transport gases
4. gathers information and controls body functions
2. move organs and body parts
5. reproduction
3. stores nutrients
Four Major Regions:
1. Cell membrane: semi permeable, provides protection, defines the extent of the cell
2. Cytoplasm: reservoir for raw materials and organelles
3. Nucleus: cell information and heredity data
4. All the other organelles: - "little organs" - specialized cellular compartments, each performing its own job
- sub-cellular structures with specialized functions
–
Mitochondria: power plant of the cell, converts glucose into ATP
–
Golgi apparatus: packages things for export out of the cell
–
Rough ER: synthesizes proteins, usually for export
–
Rosettes: clusters of ribosomes that perform protein synthesis for internal use
–
Smooth ER: synthesizes lipids and steroids
8. Describe the structure and basic functions of the cell organelles
Mitochondria:
- threadlike or lozenge shaped membranous organelles
- power plant of the cell, converts glucose into ATP
Golgi apparatus:- consists of stacked and flattened membranous sacs, shaped like hollow dinner plates
- packages things for export out of the cell
Rough ER:
- external surface is studded with ribosomes
- synthesizes proteins, usually for export
Rosettes:
- clusters of ribosomes (small, dark-staining granules)
- perform protein synthesis for internal use
Smooth ER:
- continuous with rough ER and consists of tubules arranged in a looping network
- synthesizes lipids and steroids
9. Tissue- a group of cells, similar or dissimilar, plus the extracellular matrix, all working together to perform a specific function
Types of Tissue
1. Epithelium or epithelial tissue - covers the body, glands
2. Connective tissue - supports other tissues
3. Nervous Tissue - cells that communicate with other cells
4. Muscle Tissue - specialized for contraction
10. List the functional and structural characteristics of epithelial tissues

Usually arranged as sheets - continuous layer

Highly cellular with little extracellular matrix - stain darker than connective tissue bec. nucleic acid take up more stain

Polarity to the arrangement of cells and organelles - 1 surface is free (open to air and water), 1 surface is attached

Avascular - no blood vessels, gets nutrients by diffusion/ osmosis from connective tissue

Regenerate quickly - rapidly dividing
Functional: protection / absorption / excretion / secretion / filtration / sensory reception / surface transport
Structural:
SHAPE: squamos - flat
cuboidal - cubed
columnar - tall, rectangular
transitional - in between shapes
ARRANGEMENT:
simple - single layer
pseudostratified stratified - 1 layer that looks like many layers
stratified - multiple layers
11. Describe the types of connective tissue and note their main functions
1. Areolar Connective Tissue
- gel-like matrix with all three fiber types
- underlies epithelia and surrounds capillaries
- cushions and protects body organs
2. Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
- primarily irregularly arranged collagen fibers
- nerve and muscle sheets, dermis
- provides structural strength
3. Dense Regular Connective Tissue
- primarily parallel collagen fibers
- between skeletal muscles and skeleton
- provides firm attachment; conducts pull of muscle
4. Adipose Connective Tissue
- matrix as in areolar; fat cells, nucleus pushed to the side by large fat droplet
- under skin, around kidneys and eyeballs, abdomen, breasts
- provides energy reserves; provides padding/ cushion; insulates
5. Reticular Connective Tissue
- network of reticular fibers
- liver, kidney, spleen
- provides supporting framework
6. Elastic Connective Tissue
- contains high proportion of elastic fibers
- between vertebrae of the spinal column, penis
- stabilizes positions of vertebrae and penis, cushions shocks
7. Hyaline Cartilage
- chondrocytes in lacunae; amorphous but firm matrix
- between tips of ribs and bones of sternum
- provides stiff but flexible support
8. Fibrocartilage
- matrix similar to but less firm than hyaline
- intervertebral discs, pads within knee joint
- resists compression, prevents bone-to-bone contact
9. Elastic Cartilage
- similar to hyaline but more elastic fiber in matrix
- auricle of external ear, larynx, auditory canal
- provides support but tolerates distortion without damage
10. Bone
- osteocytes lie in lacunae; hard, calcified matrix
- bones
- provides support and protects; stores calcium and other minerals
11. Blood
- red and white blood cells in fluid matrix (plasma)
- contained within blood vessels
- transport of respiratory gases, nutrients, wastes, etc
12. List the functions of the integumentary system
1. PROTECTION - from injury, foreign substances, invasion, sunlight, dehydration
2. REGULATION OF TEMPERATURE - heat- sudoriferous glands (sweat), vasodilation (blood vessel)
- cold - vasoconstriction, pilo-erection, adipose connective tissue
3. COMMUNICATION OF INTERNAL/EXTERNAL CONDITIONS - vast array of sensory receptors to detect environmental
conditions ; texture and color of skin convey information to doctors
cyanosis - too little oxygen in blood
jaundice - yellow skin color - poor liver/kidney function
pallor - low blood sugar, low blood pressure
flushed - red color can indicate hypertension, fever, embarrassment
bronze - adrenal gland problems
4. SYNTHESIS & SECRETION - massive growth of keratin, oily secretions by sebaceous glands, sweat produced by sudoriferous
glands.
13. Describe the sub-layers of the epidermis and their functions
1. Stratum Basale - Single layer of rapidly dividing cells called keratinocytes.
- As new cells form, they push upward.
- Rate of production = rate of abrasion
2. Stratum Spinosum - 8-10 layers of cells (thickest layer)
- production of keratin begins here
- langerhans cells found here (macrophages)
3. Stratum Granulosum - 3-5 layers of cells
- final form of keratin occurs,
- lamellated granules observed here, releases glycolipid for waterproofing skin
4. Stratum Lucidum
- found only in palms/ soles of feet, called thick skin
- cells appear clear, flat, and are now dead
5. Stratum Corneum
- 25 to 30 layers of flat, dead cells
- cells are completely filled with keratin
- cells continuously shed and replaced
14. Illustrate the dermis and list its accessory organs
Accessory Organs:
hair follicle
sweat gland
oil gland
arrector pili muscle
meissner's corpuscle
pacinian corpuscle
vein/artery
sensory nerve fiber
15. Identify the glands of the integumentary system and their functions
1. Sebaceous Glands (oil glands) - conditions hair and waterproofs skin (sebum)
2. Sudoriferous Glands (sweat glands) - eliminates waste and cools the body
eccrine- all over the body
apocrine- axillary and genital areas
POSSIBLE ESSAY QUESTIONS:
1. Five of the 11 organ systems include functions related to the processing and transport of materials and waste. In a table, list these five
systems and specify two characteristic activities that each organ system performs.
1.) lymphatic & immune | collection of extracellular fluid | transport of fat from digestive system to cardiovascular system
2.) urinary | produce, collects, eliminates urine | excretion of waste products
3.) respiratory | keeps the blood completely supplied with oxygen | removes carbon dioxide
4.) digestive | eliminates solids and wastes | breaks down and absorbs food
5.) cardiovascular | distributes oxygen and nutrients to cells | carries away CO2 and wastes
2. List two organ systems that integrate the functions of all the other organ systems. Identify two component organs from each of these
integrating organ systems and summarize how each of these organ systems functions.
Nervous System: nerve / brain = fast-acting control system of the body that responds to internal and external changes by activating
appropriate muscles and glands. Integration of other organ systems via nerve impulses that travel via nerves.
Endocrine System: pituitary gland / adrenal gland = glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction
and nutrition use by body cells. Integration of other organ systems via hormones that travel via blood.
3. Illustrate an example of a negative feedback loop - label the appropriate organs or tissues and the pathways of the intercellular
messengers. Briefly explain the concept and purpose of a negative feedback loop.
 The sensor (hypothalamus) senses the temperature of the blood that flows thru it
 If the blood temperature is too low, the hypothalamus sends a messenger (nerve impulse) via a pathway (neurons) to effectors (muscles)
causing them to shiver and warm the blood.
 When the blood temperature rises to the pre-defined set point, the signal to the muscles stops.
4. Provide a general definition for qualifying a group of cells and its extracellular matrix as a tissue. Then illustrate, label and describe
one specific example from each of the four primary types of tissues.
- group of cells, similar or dissimilar, plus the extracellular matrix, all working together to perform a specific function
1. Stratified Squamos Epithelium Tissue
2. Dense Regular Connective Tissue
3. Skeletal Muscle Tissue
4. Nervous Tissue: Neurons
3 LAYERS OF THE SKIN:
I. Epidermis - avascular, keratinized stratified squamous epithelium consisting of four distinct cell types and 4/5 layers
Thin skin- 4 layers, is found over most of the body surface
Thick skin- 5 layers, is found on the soles of the feet and palms of the hand
5 Sublayers:
1. Stratum Basale
2. Stratum Spinosum
3. Stratum Granulosum
4. Stratum Lucidum
5. Stratum Corneum
II. Dermis
◦
Consists of 2 layers The Papillary Layer (upper 20% of the dermis) and the Reticular Layer (lower 80% of the dermis)
◦
Composed of loose areolar (areolar means loose) connective tissue
◦
Includes the dermal papillae - (microscopic projections into the epidermis)
◦
Dermal ridges (microscopic mounds that result in fingerprints and sole prints) provide more friction when grasping objects
with fingers
2 layers:
1. Papillary Layer (upper 20%)

Composed of loose areolar (areolar means loose) connective tissue

Includes the dermal papillae - (microscopic projections into the epidermis)

Dermal ridges (microscopic mounds that result in fingerprints and sole prints) provide more friction when grasping
objects with fingers
Function:
Identifying Structures: Meissner's Corpuscles (touch receptors)
2. Reticular Layer (lower 80%)

Composed of dense irregular connective tissue

Cell types include fibroblasts, macrophages, and mast cells

Fiber types include collagen, elastin and reticular fibers
Function:
Identifying Structures: hair follicles, oil and sweat glands, blood vessels and capillaries, nerves, free nerve ending (cold&warmth
receptors) Pacinian Corpuscles (pressure receptors)
III. Hypodermis (subcutaneous skin)
Description: Lowest layer of the integumentary system
Function: to anchor skin and insulate body
Indentifying Structures: some areolar connective tissue, mostly adipose tissue
top: Meissner's corpuscle lower: Pacinian corpuscle
BONDING:
Covalent - sharing of electrons
Ionic - transfer of electrons
Hydrogen - polar bonding
2 Types of Cells:
1. Somatic - regular body cells/ divide by mitosis/ exact replication
2. Germ - (sperm & egg) - a two step process that produces 4 cells each/ reduction division of genetic material
- produced via meiosis = consists of 2 divisions, Meiosis I (reduction division) and Meiosis II
Functions of Kidneys:
1. regulation of blood volume
5. production of red blood cells
2. regulation of blood pressure
6. synthesis of vit. D
3. regulation of blood pH
7. excretion of waste products & foreign substances
4. regulation of ionic composition of blood
red blood cell = no nuclei
FOUR TISSUE TYPES:
1. Epithelium or epithelial tissue - covers surfaces.
FUNCTIONS: protection, absorption, filtration, excretion, secretion, surface transport and sensory reception. Glands are epithelium.
Polarity - the membranes always have one free surface, called the apical surface, typically that surface is significantly different from the basal
surface.
2. Connective tissue -Few cells but with lots of extracellular matrix
-Variable composition (widely varying cell types & fibers of the matrix)
-Highly vascularized (with a few exceptions) with high rates of transport (active or passive) from /toward other tissue type
FUNCTIONS:
 Protection (absorbing shock)
 Support for other tissues (bone/cartilage)
 Brings diverse tissue types together (as in organs)
 Separates tissues with different functions from one another
3. Nervous Tissue - is composed of 2 categories of cells:
 Neurons: capable of intracellular & intercellular communication
 Neuroglia: support cells: protect, provide, and clean up
4. Muscle:
1. Skeletal muscle tissue - voluntary - red intercalated disc (surface of body)
2. Cardiac muscle tissue - involuntary - blue intercalated disc (heart)
3. Smooth muscle tissue - involuntary - red intercalated disc - more open spaces, no stripes, no discs (visceral organs & blood vessels)
3 Types of Fibers:

Collagen - a large protein - The most abundant protein in the body

Reticulin - a framework protein for lymphoid organs

Elastin - an extracellular fiber that provides elasticity for tissues that frequently change shape