SCIENTIFIC METHOD
This is a list of facts that you should know for the test.
I suggest you print out a copy before the test.
1. Scientists explore the world and natural occurrences by first making observations.
2. An observation is a description about an object or an event.
3. Observations are facts that everyone can agree on.
4. Observations are made by using the five senses: touch, sight, hearing, small, and taste (though in
science we should not taste anything!).
5. Observations are also measurements that are made with instruments.
6. After observations are made, a scientist will use these observations to make inferences.
7. An inference explains what was observed. An inference is an opinion based on the observations
and data collected.
8. When exploring the natural world and phenomenon that occur or to solve a problem scientists
follow a series of steps called the "Scientific Method."
9. The first step in the scientific method is to ask a question; what problem do you want to find the
answer to?
10. The second step is to collect information that is already known about this problem. Scientists
research what is already known.
11. Based on the research about what is known about the problem the scientist will then form a
hypothesis. The hypothesis gives an expected answer to the question. It is written as an "If.....,
the....." statement.
12. Now the scientist must test the hypothesis to see if it is true. An experiment must be designed.
13. When designing an experiment the scientist will decide on the manipulated (independent)
variable that he/she will change during the experiment.
14. The manipulated variable is the only factor that should change during the experiment. All other
factors affecting the experiment must be kept constant.
15. A procedure is the series of steps that will be followed during the experiment.
16. During the experiment the scientist will observe the response to the manipulated variable. This
response will be recorded as data usually in a chart. This responding factor is the responding
(dependent) variable.
17. After the experiment the scientist will analyze the data. He/she may do calculations or graph
the data.
18. Finally a conclusion is made. The scientist now writes about whether the hypothesis was correct
or wrong.
MEASUREMENT & GRAPHING
1.Measurements are observations made with instruments.
2. All measurements are written as a number to the TENTH place and with a unit. For
example: 23.8 grams, 35.0 mL , 2.6 km
3. In science we use the metric system only.
4. The three units of metric measurement we will use in this topic are:
mass = gram (g); volume = liter (L); and length = meter (m).
5. Prefixes are placed in front of these units (m, L, g) to indicate the amount. For example: a
kilogram is 1000 grams; a centimeter = 1/100 of a meter stick. These prefixes are on page 13
of your packet.
6. When converting one metric measurement to another you must move the decimal and then
use zeroes as place holders. Remember to write down the order of the prefixes to help you: K
HDU.dcm
7. Length is the distance between two points. A metric ruler is used.
8. The metric unit of length is a meter. A kilometer = 1000 m.
There are 100 cm in a meter. There are 1000 mm in a meter.
9. Volume is the amount of space an object occupies.
10. The volume of a rectangular object is calculated as length x width x height. If you
measure these dimensions in centimeters then the unit of volume is a centimeter cubed (cc).
11. The volume of a liquid is measured with a graduated cylinder. Read the bottom of the
curved meniscus. A unit of liquid volume would be a milliliter (mL).
12. The volume of an irregular shaped solid such as a rock is measured by water
displacement in a graduated cylinder. The unit of volume would be a milliliter (mL).
13. Mass is the amount of matter in an object. Mass is measured with a balance. The unit of
mass is the gram (g).
14. Do NOT confuse mass with weight. Weight is the force of gravity pulling down on an
object. If you go to Jupiter, a very large planet with a lot of gravity, then your weight will be
greater but you will still have the same mass!
15. For any material if you know the mass and the volume of that object you can calculate the
density by dividing the mass by the volume. The unit of density is g/cc.
16. Density is the concentration of matter packed in to a material. A very dense material will
feel "heavy" to you and will sink in water. A material with a density less than 1.0 g/cc will float
in water.
17. A graph is a way that a scientist analyzes data to look for patterns and relationships
between the variables.
18. In science after the data points are plotted ONLY connect the data points with a line. Do
NOT extend the line!
19. On a graph the manipulated (independent) variable is the X-axis.
This is the variable that was controlled by the experimenter.
20. On a graph the responding (dependent) variable is on the Y-axis. This is the
variable that resulted from the experiment.
CHEMISTRY OF MATTER
1. Matter takes up space (volume) and has mass.
2. Matter can occur as a solid, liquid, or gas. Plasma is the state of matter
between a liquid and a gas.
3. Matter can be living or non-living material.
4. Matter is made of one type of element (ex. coal = carbon) or more than one
type of element (ex. salt=NaCl)
5. The Periodic Table of Elements organizes the 92 natural elements and the
22 man-made elements into a chart.
6. The symbol for the element can be one or two letters based on their common
or Latin name. The first letter is capitalized.
7. The smallest part of an element is the atom.
8. The core or nucleus of the atom contains the protons and neutrons.
9. Surrounding the nucleus is a cloud of electrons.
10. The protons are positively charged and are found in the nucleus.
11. The neutrons are neutral (no charge) and are found in the nucleus.
12. The electrons have a negative charge are "orbiting" the nucleus.
13. Matter is generally neutral; therefore the protons and electrons are equal in
amount.
14. The atomic number of the element is above the symbol.
15. The atomic number EQUALS the number of protons, which is the same
number of electrons.
16. The atomic mass is found below the symbol; round this number to the
whole number.
17. The atomic mass equals the number of protons AND neutrons.
18. To find the number of neutrons subtract the atomic number from the atomic
mass.
19. Elements on the periodic table can be classified as metals, nonmetals,
metalloids, and noble (inert) gases).
20. Metals are shiny, can conduct electricity and heat, are malleable (can be
hammered into a shape) and ductile (can be made into thin wires).
21. Nonmetals are brittle (they break apart) and dull. They will not conduct
electricity or heat.
22. Metalloids have some properties of a metal and some of a nonmetal. For
example they may be shiny but not malleable.
23. Noble gases are inert; they will NOT combine or react with any other
element.
24. Metals are on the left side of the periodic table. Most elements are metals.
25. Non-metals are found on the right side of the table.
26. Metalloids are found along the "zigzag" line.
27. The Noble (inert) gases are in the last column of the table beginning with
helium.
28. When two or more elements chemically combine together they form a
compound. As an example: iron and oxygen combine to form iron oxide
(FeO) which you know as rust.
29. A chemical formula describes the type of elements and amount of each
element in a compound.
30. All the materials we use in our lives are made of elements and compounds
of those elements. Scientists are always finding new ways to use these
elements.
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
1. Matter is any substance that takes up space (volume) and has mass.
2. Matter can exist as a solid, liquid, and a gas (vapor).
3. In a solid the particles are matter are closely spaced and can only vibrate in place. Solids have
definite volumes and shapes.
4. In a liquid the particles of matter are loosely arranged and can flow and move. A liquid has a
definite mass and volume but takes the shape of the container it is in.
5. In a gas the particles can spread out and move freely. A gas takes the shape and volume of the
container it is in.
6. Matter can change state (phase). For example: freezing is the change from liquid to solid;
evaporation is change from liquid to gas, and condensation is change from gas to liquid.
7. Physical properties of matter describe the appearance of a substance. Examples of physical
properties include shape, color, size, state (solid, liquid, gas), density, mass, volume,
temperature, texture.
8. Chemical properties of matter describe how the substance reacts with other substances and
what it is made of. Examples of chemical properties include the chemical composition of a matter
(example salt is NaCl), and burning, rusting and tarnishing (these involve the reaction with
oxygen).
9. During a chemical change a new substance if formed. When paper burns you are left with
ashes that are not recognizable as paper.
10. A physical change will not change the substance. When liquid water freezes you still have
water but it is frozen. If you cut a piece of paper in half, both halves are still paper but smaller.
11. A compound is made of two or more elements that are chemically combined to form a new
substance. Example: sodium and chlorine chemically combine to make salt; two hydrogen atoms
and one oxygen atom chemically combine to make water.
12. A mixture is made of two or more substances that are only physically combined. The
substances do NOT lose their physical or chemical properties and can therefore be physically
removed from the mixture.
13. Depending on the properties of the parts of the mixture you can separate the mixture by using
forceps (pick the parts out), a magnet, a filter, a strainer, or pour off the liquid.
14. A solution is when particles of one substance are evenly mixed with another substance.
15. The material that is dissolved in another is called the solute. The solute salt will dissolve in
water.
16. The material that the solute dissolves in is the solvent. The solute salt will dissolve in the
solvent water.
17. The universal solvent is water. Solutes can be separated out of the water by evaporation of
the water.
18. How fast a solute dissolves in a solvent depends on temperature, stirring, and amount of the
solute used.
19. Solutions can be tested for pH with litmus or indicator paper. A pH of 7 is a neutral solution.
pH less than 7 is acid and pH more than 7 is basic (alkaline).
20. Our rainwater and snow have become more acidic. This is occurring because burning of fossil
fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) adds carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide gases to the air. These
gasses mix with water vapor to form acids in the clouds. Acid precipitation negatively affects
plants, animals, and our building structures.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
1. Living organisms are made of cells. Some are one-celled (unicellular) and others are
many celled (multicellular).
2. Living organisms need energy to survive. The primary source of energy is sunlight.
3. Living organisms can adapt and react to changes in their environment.
4. Living organisms grow and change during their lifetime (develop). When an organism
grows its cells do NOT get bigger, the organism just produces more cells.
5. Living organisms need air, water, living space, and a proper temperature.
6. All the life processes that an organism carries out are known as metabolism.
7. Nutrition is the process by which an organism obtains food for growth and energy.
8. Some organisms (green plants) make their own food, they are called autotrophs.
9. Other organisms must obtain food from other organisms, they are called heterotrophs
(ex: animals)
10. During nutrition the organism ingests food (takes in), digests the food (breaks down into
smaller molecules), and will egests (get rid of) all undigested food.
11. Respiration is the process by which energy is released from food. Most organisms need
oxygen to do this (aerobes). There are a few organisms that do not need oxygen
(anaerobes).
12. Excretion is the process by which metabolic wastes are removed from the body. These
wastes can include liquids, gases, and excess heat.
13. The internal process of carrying nutrients and oxygen to all parts of the organism's body
is transport. Transport will also carry wastes away to be excreted.
14. Regulation is the control and coordination of all life processes.
15. Reproduction involves the making of new cells for healing, repair, and growth.
Reproduction also involves the making of a new organism.
16. Organisms grow and develop during their lifetime.
17. Homeostasis is maintaining a constant internal environment in the organism. In human
homeostasis insures that our body temperature is always 98.6 F and there is always the right
amount of oxygen in our blood.
18. The processes of nutrition, respiration, excretion, regulation, growth, reproduction and
homeostasis are metabolism.
19. Life is diverse. There are so many different organisms, over 2.5 million different
organisms.
20. To make it easier to study organism scientists have classified organisms into categories.
The science of naming, describing, and classifying organisms is called taxonomy.
21. The largest classification category is Kingdom. Kingdoms contain the most diverse
group of organisms. Yet all organisms in a kingdom share similar characteristics. For
example, the plant kingdoms contain all organisms which contain a green pigment in their
cells called chlorophyll.
22. The most specific classification category is species. All organisms in a species share all
the same characteristics and can successfully produce offspring.
23. The order of the taxonomic categories is Kingdom ---> Phylum --->
Class ---> Order ---> Family ---> Genus ---> species.
24. All organisms have a common name (ex. dog) and a scientific name (ex. Canis
familiarus). The scientific name is the Genus and species. Species name is always lower
case. Humans are Homo erectus.
25. The Moneran Kingdom includes organisms that are one-celled with no nucleus.
Examples are bacteria, blue-green algae. Monerans cause disease, are used to make yogurt
and cheese, and decompose dead organisms.
26. The Protist Kingdom are one-celled with a nucleus. Examples are ameba, paramecium,
and euglena as well as algae. These organisms are plant and/or animal like. Plant protist
(ocean algae) produce most of the oxygen in our atmosphere.
27. The Fungi Kingdom are multicelled with nucleus. they can not make their own food even
though they have roots like plants. examples are mushrooms, mold, and yeast. Fungi are used
for food and also decompose dead organisms.
28. The Plant Kingdom are multicelled organisms with nucleus. Plant cells contain the green
pigment chlorophyll which absorbs sunlight during photosynthesis when plants make their
own food.
29. The Animal Kingdom are all organisms which are multicelled with nucleus. they are
heterotrophs and can not make their own food. The animal kingdom has the most complex
life forms.
30. Some animals have a backbone and internal skeleton. these are called vertebrates. This
includes fish, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and mammals.
31. Other animals have no backbone or skeleton. They are called invertebrates. Examples
are coral, shrimp, insects, starfish, clams, and worms.
32. Viruses do NOT have a cell structure, do NOT take in food , do NOT produce metabolic
wastes, and can NOT reproduce on their own. Scientists consider viruses as non- living. they
"take over" live cells.
33. A dichotomous key is a series of questions that are used to identify an organism. Page 25
and 27 of your packet includes examples of dichotomous keys.
34. When making a dichotomous key you must use statements that ask about the physical
features of the organism that can be observed.
THE CELL & MICROSCOPE USE
1. The cell is the basic unit of structure of all living organisms.
2. Cells come from other cells. Every cell can reproduce a copy of itself.
3. All cells carry on the life processes that keep the cell alive; cells have metabolism!
4. Organisms can be made of one cell (monera and protists) or more than one cell (plant,
fungi, and animal).
5. There are three main parts of a cell: nucleus, cytoplasm, and cell membrane.
6. The cell membrane surrounds the cell. It protects the cell, provides shape and structure to
the cell, and controls what leaves and enters the cell. (The cell membrane is known as the
plasma membrane).
7. The cytoplasm is the watery, gel of the cell. All cell parts are suspended or "float" in the
cytoplasm.
8. The nucleus is the "control center" of the cell. The nucleus controls and regulates all cell
activities. It contains DNA which directs cell reproduction and carries genetic traits.
9. The unicellular organisms, monera and protists, are different from each other. Monera
have no organized nucleus; the protists have a definite nucleus.
10. In the cytoplasm there are many organelles. Each organelle has a specific life function
for the cell and ultimately for the organism.
11. The mitochondria are the "powerhouse" of the cell. Cell respiration takes place in the
mitochondria. During respiration energy is released from food nutrients. Most respiration
involves oxygen. Cells that need a lot of energy, such as muscle cells, will have many
mitochondria.
12. The lysosomes carry on cell digestion.
13. The ribosomes synthesize (make) proteins for the cell.
14. The golgi bodies "package" up materials, such as wastes, in the cell.
15. Vacuoles are "storage areas" for the cells. Vacuoles can store extra water, wastes, and/or
food for the cell. Plant cells have very large vacuoles.
16. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a systems of "canals" in the cell. Materials are
transported through the ER to other areas of the cell.
17. Plant and fungi cells also have a cell wall. The cell wall is a rigid outer membrane that
surrounds the cell outside of the cell membrane. It gives the plant and fungus support.
18. Plant cells also have chloroplasts. These will appear green because they contain the
green pigment chlorophyll. Chlorophyll absorbs sunlight so that the plant cell can convert
carbon dioxide and water into sugar and oxygen. This process is called photosynthesis.
19. Animal and plant cells differ in shape and some of their organelles.
20. Plant cells tend to be rectangular in shape due to the cell wall.
21. Plant cells contain the green chloroplasts and large vacuoles.
22. The microscope enables us to see and study the cell and other small organisms.
23. When viewed through a microscope the object/organism will be enlarged, upside down,
and reversed.
24. The magnification of the microscope is the magnification of the lens multiplied by the
objective lens.
25. Always use the lowest power and the coarse adjustment knob when focusing an object.
26. If you need to see more detail carefully turn to the higher power objective. Only use the
fine adjustment knob.
27. The diaphragm under the stage will control the amount of light reaching the
object/organism.
28. The circle of light that you see under the microscope is called the field of view. Its
diameter is measured in millimeters (mm).
29. If you know the field of view of your microscope's objective lens then you can estimate
the size of the organism or cell you are viewing.
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
1. In multi-celled organisms (plants, fungi, and animals) cells are organized into body
structures.
2. Cells that work together to do the same "job" are organized into tissues. An example of
tissues are muscles.
3. Tissues that work together form organs. The heart is an organ made of cardiac muscle
tissue.
4. In our body there are many organs that work together; these form organ systems. The
digestive system includes the stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. These organs
work together to breakdown food.
5. Our organ systems work to maintain homeostasis (balance) in our body and perform all
the life functions (metabolism).
6. The movement of the body is caused by the interaction of the muscle and the skeletal
systems.
7. The human skeleton supports the body, protects organs, produces blood cells, stores
minerals for cells, and interacts with the muscles to cause motion.
8. The skeleton is made of bone. Bone is living cells. The outer part is hard and the inner part
(marrow) is soft.
9. Cartilage is soft, flexible bone tissue. At joints the cartilage cushions the bones.
10. Ligaments are tissue that connect bone to bone at joints.
11. The muscles are flexible tissue that work in pairs to cause movement. When we move
one muscle will contract and the other will extend.
12. Tendons are tissues that connect muscle to bone.
13. The muscles and skeleton are controlled by our nervous system so that our movements
are controlled and coordinated.
14. It is important to warm up before exercise and activity so that our muscles are flexible
and will not become injured.
15. The food that we eat supplies our body with nutrients for energy, metabolism , and
growth and repair of cells and tissues.
16. The energy in food is measured in Calories.
17. Carbohydrates are the MAIN source of energy for the body. Carbohydrates are starches
and sugars that are found in fruits, vegetables, bread, pasta, cereal and rice.
18. Fats are a source of stored energy and protect our organs. Fats are found in oils, butter,
milk , dairy products, and meat. Too much fat in your diet can damage your circulatory
system and heart.
19. Proteins are very important in your diet. They provide the nutrients needed to build and
repair tissues and keep the tissues and organs healthy. Proteins can be found in meat, fish,
eggs, cheese, beans, nuts, milk and soy
20. Vitamins are necessary for growth and for healthy bones, teeth, nerves, and muscles.
Every day you get vitamins A, B, C, D, E, and K from the food you eat. Your body can make
vitamins D and K.
21. Minerals are important in building body tissues and help to regulate metabolism. Zinc,
iodine, calcium, iron and potassium are a few of the minerals you need in your diet.
22. Water is essential for the chemical reactions that take place in your body. You need at
least 8 glasses of water a day. Too little water may make you tired and dehydrated.
23. A poor diet can cause deficiency diseases. Anemia is a deficiency of iron, Scurvy is a
deficiency of vitamin C.
24. The Food Guide Pyramid shows you what types and amounts of nutrients you should
eat each day. It includes the types of food that contain these nutrients.
25. Roughage is the part of food that you can not digest. It is found in fruits and vegetables.
Roughage is essential to a healthy digestive tract.
26. The digestive system changes food into a form that can be absorbed and used by the
body cells and tissues.
27. Mechanical digestion is the physically breaking apart of food. An example is the
chewing and grinding of food by teeth
28. Chemical digestion occurs when food is broken down into smaller molecules. These
small parts can be absorbed into the blood and transported to the cells in the body.
22. Food moves through your digestive tract by the action of involuntary muscles. This is
called peristalsis.
23. In your mouth food is mechanically digested and begins to be chemically digested.
24. The esophagus connects the mouth to the stomach. It includes your throat.
25. The stomach is very acidic (pH =2). Food is mechanically and chemical digested here.
26. The small intestine completes chemical digestion. In the small intestine nutrients are
absorbed into the blood which transports these to the body cells.
27. The large intestine prepares undigested food and roughage for egestion.
28. The circulatory system transports nutrients, oxygen, and wastes throughout the body.
29. The heart is a muscular organ which pumps blood to the lungs and all body parts.
30. The blood vessels carry blood throughout the body. These are the arteries, veins, and
capillaries.
31. The arteries move blood away from the heart. They are thick-walled and muscular.
32. The capillaries are narrow, thin-walled blood vessels. All organs and tissues are filled
with capillaries. It is through the capillaries that exchange of nutrients, oxygen, and wastes
occur.
33. The veins carry blood back to the heart from the body parts. The blood in the veins is
now deficient in oxygen and nutrients.
34. The blood is a fluid tissue made of different blood cells.
35. The plasma is the watery liquid of the blood; it is yellowish in color.
36. The red blood cells carry oxygen to the cells and carbon dioxide to the lungs for
removal.
37. The white blood cells fight disease-causing organisms in our body.
38. The platelets in our blood causes our blood to clot when we are cut or injured.
39. There are four main blood groups: A, B, AB, and O. O is the most common and is the
universal donor.
40. The respiratory system exchanges waste gas (carbon dioxide) for the gas (oxygen) that
we need.
41. Oxygen is needed by our cells to break down nutrients into energy for our body activities.
This occurs in the mitochondria of the cells.
42. Air is inhaled through the nose and mouth. The air passes through the throat (pharynx),
to the trachea (windpipe) to the bronchial tubes and then to the lungs.
43. In the lungs gases are exchanged between the air sacs and the capillaries of the
circulatory system.
44. The ribs and diaphragm (a muscle) help us inhale and exhale.
45. The excretory system removes gaseous and liquid wastes from the body. It includes the
liver, kidneys, lungs, and skin.
46. The liver inactivates toxins in our blood.
47. The kidneys filter out liquid wastes from our blood and forms urine. The urine is stored
in our bladder until eliminated.
48. The lungs remove gaseous carbon dioxide waste from the blood.
49. The skin removes excess heat from the body. The skin also protects our body tissues.
50. The nervous system controls and regulates all the body systems. The nervous systems
responds to changes (stimuli) that occur inside and outside our body.
51. The nervous system includes the brain, spinal cord (inside the backbone), and a network
of nerves that reaches every part of our body.
52. The endocrine system is a set of ductless glands that secrete chemicals called hormones.
53. Each endocrine gland secretes a specific chemical hormone that is carried by the blood
to a specific organ.
54. The endocrine and nervous systems work together to regulate and control the body
systems.
55. The reproductive system produces hormones specific to each gender and the cells that
produce offspring. In females this includes the ovaries and in males the testes.
PLANTS
1. Plants have many parts that allow the plant to carry on all the life processes (metabolism).
2. Roots generally grow underground. They anchor the plant in the soil and take in water and
minerals from the soil.
3. Stems generally grow above the ground. They support the plant and hold up leaves,
flowers, and fruits.
4. Roots, stems, and leaves contain tubes called vascular tissue that transport water and
nutrients through the plant.
5. The xylem transports water through the plant.
6. The phloem transports food and nutrients through the plant.
7. Leaves are the place where food(sugar) and oxygen are produced by the plant by
photosynthesis.
8. During photosynthesis the plant converts light energy to the chemical energy of food
(sugar).
9. For photosynthesis to occur plants must have: light, chlorophyll (in chloroplasts), water,
and carbon dioxide.
10. During photosynthesis the plant produces food (sugar) and oxygen.
11. Oxygen is a waste gas excreted through the stomates (openings) in the leaf.
12. Plants release water vapor to the air through the stomates. This is called transpiration.
13. Through photosynthesis plants provide other organisms with food and oxygen.
14. Plants produce more or their own species by reproduction.
15. Asexual reproduction involves one parent plant producing new plants that are exactly
like the parent.
16. Asexual reproduction in plants involves vegetative propagation where parts of plants can
grow new plants. Stems, leaves, and roots can propagate a new plant.
17. Sexual reproduction in plants occurs in the flower.
18. During sexual reproduction two parent cells( egg and sperm) fuse together to form the
fertilized egg which becomes the embryo.
19. Sexual reproduction produces new plants that are similar but not exact copies of the
parent plants.
20. In the flower, the anther on the stamen produces pollen (which becomes the sperm cell).
21. Within the flower bud is the ovary which contains the egg cells.
22. Pollination occurs when pollen falls on the sticky stigma of the flower.
23. After pollination the sperm cells will join with the egg cells. The sperm cells will fertilize
the egg cells to produce new plants.
24. After fertilization the egg cells become the seeds and the ovaries become the fruit.
25. Seeds contain the embryo plant and food for the embryo.
26. Seeds will germinate (grow) when the seed has warmth, water, and oxygen.
27. A fruit forms from the flower after fertilization occurs. A vegetable is any edible part of
the plant such as the leaf, stem, or root.
REPRODUCTION & DEVELOPMENT
1. Reproduction is the life process where new cells and individuals are produced.
2. Reproduction is essential to the survival of a species.
3. Asexual reproduction involves one parent cell. Cells and offspring produced by asexual
reproduction are IDENTICAL to the parent.
4. Asexual reproduction is how cells repair and replace themselves and how organisms grow.
5. Sexual reproduction involves the joining of two parent cells: egg and sperm.
6. Sexual reproduction produces offspring that are similar but not identical to the parent.
7. Sexual reproduction causes variation in a species. These variations help the species
survive.
8. Asexual reproduction occurs by cell division called mitosis.
9. During mitosis the nucleus first replicates (makes a copy of itself) , the replicated nuclei
separate, and the cytoplasm divides.
10. The two "daughter" cells produced by mitosis have identical nuclei and cytoplasm.
11. Uncontrolled mitotic cell division can occur; this may cause tumors or cancer cells to
grow.
12. Fission is a type of asexual reproduction where a parent cell splits in half after the
nucleus replicates. This occurs in bacteria and ameba.
13. Asexual reproduction by budding occurs as a growth off the parent organisms which will
break off. This occurs in hydra, corals, sponges, and yeast.
14. Asexual reproduction by vegetative propagation occurs when a piece of a plant (leaf,
stem, root) grows into a new plant.
15. Asexual reproduction by sporulation occurs in the fungi, such as molds and mushrooms.
The parent produces spores by mitosis which may stay dormant until conditions are right for
survival.
16. Some organisms are able to regrow missing parts, this is called regeneration. This
occurs in organisms such as starfish, lobsters, crabs, lizards, and planaria.
17. Sexual reproduction occurs when an egg cell and a sperm cell of the same species merge
together. This is called fertilization.
18. A fertilized egg is called a zygote.
19. After the zygote forms, cell division by mitosis occurs to form a multi-celled embryo.
20. If two eggs are fertilized at the same time each by a different sperm cell, then fraternal
twins will develop. Fraternal twins do not look like each other since they formed from
different egg and sperm cells.
21. If after the zygote forms and during mitosis, the cells separate into two embryos then
identical twins will develop. Since they came from the same fertilized egg, identical twins are
“clones” of each other.
22. The time it takes for an embryo to grow and develop so it can survive on its own is the
gestation time. This varies among organisms.
23. Gestation can take place externally in water (ex fish, amphibians), externally in an egg
(birds, reptile), or internally in the female's uterus (mammals).
24. If external fertilization and development occur, many eggs are fertilized since a large
number will not survive.
25. Animals that have internal fertilization and development of the embryo produce less
fertilized eggs since their chance of survival is greater.
26. As an offspring develop it changes in size and structure.
27. Some offspring do not look like the adult. They undergo metamorphosis which changes
body form. Insects and amphibians go through metamorphosis.
GENETICS
1. Traits are all the physical and chemical characteristics of an organism.
2. Traits enable an organism to adapt to its environment and survive.
3. Traits are passed from generation to generation during process of reproduction.
4. The first person to study the heredity of traits was Gregor Mendel. He studied the passage
of traits in pea plants.
5. Heredity is controlled by the genetic material in the nucleus of cells.
6. The nucleus is made of thread-like structures called chromosomes.
7. Chromosomes are made of DNA (deoxyribose nucleic acid). This large molecule contains
the "genetic code" for all the traits of the organism.
8. Chromosomes occur in pairs. Humans have 23 pairs, a dog 24 pairs, a roundworm 50
pairs.
9. Small parts of each chromosome are called genes. A specific gene controls a specific trait.
10. For every trait there is a specific pair of genes found at a specific point on a specific pair
of chromosomes.
11. For every trait there are different versions of the gene for that trait. These versions are
called alleles. For example: for hair type, there is a gene for curly hair and a gene for straight
hair. For blood type there is a gene for A type, a gene for B type, and a gene for O type
blood.
12. One allele is usually dominant over the other allele. The curly hair allele is dominant
over the straight hair allele. The straight hair allele is called recessive.
13. Alleles are symbolized by letters. The dominant allele will be a CAPITAL letter and the
recessive allele for the same trait will be the lower case letter. For example: for hair type,
curly will be "C" and straight will be "c"; for eye color brown will be "B" and blue will be
"b."
14. Every trait is controlled by a pair of alleles, one from each parent for sexual reproduction.
15. The egg cell will carry one allele for each trait, the sperm cell will also carry one allele
for each trait. So a human sperm cell or egg cell will only have 23 chromosomes.
15. At fertilization the chromosomes of the sperm and the egg will pair up . So the human
zygote will have 46 chromosomes.
16. When both genes for a trait are the same, the organism is pure or homozygous for that
trait. Example: BB or bb
17. When the genes for a trait are the different versions, the organism is hybrid or
heterozygous. Example: Bb
18. When an organism is pure(homozygous) for a trait, it will show that trait. Example: BB =
brown eyes; bb = blue eyes
19. When an organism is hybrid(heterozygous) for a trait it will show the dominant trait.
Example: Bb = brown eyes.
20. Genotype is the genes that the organism has. Examples of genotypes: BB, Bb, and bb.
21. Phenotype is the actual appearance of the organism. Example: brown eyes or blue eyes.
22. A Punnett Square is a way to show the probability of the traits for the offspring from
two parents.
23. A Pedigree Chart shows the passage of a trait from generation to generation.
24. In humans gender is determined by X and Y chromosomes. A pair of X chromosomes
(XX) is a female. A XY pair is a male.
25. In humans gender is determined by the sperm cell which can carry an X or a Y
chromosome. Egg cells always carry the X chromosome.
26. A mutation is a change in the genetic code. It can be caused by radiation, x-rays,
chemicals in the environment. Most mutations are harmful and the zygote will not survive.
25. Some mutations may be beneficial to the survival of the organism. These mutations will
survive and be passed on to the next generations.
ECOLOGY
This topic is covered in chapters 11 and 12 of textbook.
1. The biosphere is the part of the Earth that supports living organisms.
2. Biomes are regions of the world that have similar plants and animals. Each biome has a
particular climate, soil, and natural resources that the organisms are adapted to.
3. The marine biome is the largest area biome. The organisms must adapt to salt water and
ocean currents.
4. Tropical rainforest biomes occur along the Equator. This biome has a constant high
temperature and daily rain. This biome has the most diverse number of species. Rainforests
are a thick jungle of tress and vines.
5. Grassland biome has thick grass and few trees. This is home to many grazing animals. In
the tropics, the grasslands are called savannas. In the mid-latitudes the grassland is called
prairie and steppe.
6. The desert biome is the driest region. It is very hot during the day and cold at night. The
polar zones are classified as cold deserts.
7. We live in the mid-latitude temperate deciduous forest. Seasonal change in temperature
and rainfall occur here. Deciduous trees will drop their leaves in the fall.
8. In the northern latitudes of Canada and Asia occur the taiga biome. The taiga is dominated
by coniferous (pine) trees. Winters are severe and summers short.
9. The tundra at high latitudes has frozen soil known as permafrost. It will thaw briefly in
the short summer. During this time many small plants will emerge and flower, especially
mosses. There are no trees in the tundra zone.
10. The ice cap biome has no plants. It is below freezing all year.
11. Succession is the slow and gradual change in the environment that results in new
organism inhabiting that area. Examples include a meadow becoming a forest; a pond
becoming a swamp.
12. Ecology is the study of ecosystems, areas where organisms interact with the environment
and each other. Examples of ecosystems are pond, river, saltmarsh, forest, desert.
13. An ecosystem includes abiotic (non-living ) factors such as temperature, sunlight, water,
soil, air, pH which organisms must adapt to.
14. Ecosystems also include the biotic (living) factors which include all organisms.
15. All ecosystems need a source of energy, this is usually the Sun.
16. In an ecosystems the organisms in the same species are called a population.
17. A community is all the different populations that live in an ecosystem.
18. Ecosystems must provide organisms with energy, food, and shelter.
19. In ecosystems there is a continuous cycling of nutrients and energy.
20. The types and number of organisms in an ecosystem are controlled by limiting factors.
For instance, in a desert the lack of rain prevents deciduous trees from growing but cactus do
very well. The number of mice in an ecosystem will limit the number of hawks in an
ecosystem.
21. Human activities have made an impact on ecosystems. Burning of fossil fuels has caused
acid precipitation which has lowered the pH of lakes and ponds causing life in ponds to die.
Construction and building has destroyed ecosystems and limited the habitat of many
organisms.
22. A habitat is a specific place in an ecosystem where an organism lives. A tree top is
habitat for birds, the soil is the habitat for an earthworm.
23. The role an organism plays in an ecosystem is called a niche. A lion's niche is to be a
predator. A mushroom's niche is to decompose wastes and dead organisms.
24. If two organisms occupy the same niche in an ecosystem they will compete for living
space and food.
25. Mutualism is when two organisms depend on each other for food, shelter, and
protection. Both organisms benefit. Protists in the intestines of termites help the termite
digest wood and in turn get food for themselves.
26. Commensalism occurs when two organism live together but one benefits and the other is
unharmed. Barnacles live on the backs of whales. The barnacle get transportation to food
sources, the whale gains nothing from the barnacle.
27. Parasitism occurs when one organism lives off another which is slowly harmed. A
tapeworm is a parasite found in human and other animals. Tapeworms (the parasite) will
sicken its host animal.
28. In all ecosystems there is a flow of energy which starts with the Sun.
29. Autotrophs (green plants) use sunlight to produce food and oxygen. Green plants are the
producers in an ecosystem.
30. Heterotrophs are consumers, they feed off other organisms.
31. A herbivore feeds off plants, they are called primary consumers.
32. A carnivore eats other animals, they are secondary consumers.
33. Omnivores will eat plants or animals.
34. Decomposers obtain their food by breaking down dead organisms and wastes. They
recycle materials in the ecosystem. Mushrooms, and bacteria are decomposers (fungi and
monerans).
35. A food chain shows the flow of energy from one organism to the next. A typical food
chain is from Sun to producers (green plants) to primary consumer (herbivore) to secondary
consumer (carnivore).
ex: Sun--> green plant --> herbivore --> carnivore
36. A food web shows many food chain that are interconnected. It shows the organisms that
compete for food in an ecosystem.
37. In both the food chain and the food web, decomposers (bacteria and fungi) are important
in breaking down wastes and dead organism.
38. The energy pyramid shows how energy is transferred from producer to consumer. There
is a loss of energy. So therefore there are always more producers than consumers. Example :
there are many blades of grass for one rabbit.