CHAPTER 3
CHANGING
EMPLOYEE
BEHAVIOR
THROUGH
CONSEQUENCES
Learning
• A fairly permanent change in behavior
that occurs as a result of experience
• Change in behavior must be more than
temporary
• Learning occurs when we observe a fairly
permanent change in behavior
Approaches to Learning
• Classical conditioning
• Observational learning
• Instrumental, or Operant, Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
• Early approach to learning theory by
Ivan Pavlov, a Russian Physiologist
• Pavlov’s test:
– Conditioned a dog to salivate when a bell is
rung presenting food; eventually the dog
responded to the bell alone without the
presentation of food
Classical Conditioning
(cont.)
• Unconditioned stimulus: presentation of
food to dog
• Conditioned stimulus: Ringing of bell
• Conditioned response: The dog salivating
when bell alone was rung
• Unconditioned response: The dog
salivating when the food was presented to
him
Observational Learning
• Occurs when a person witnesses the
behavior of another and vicariously
experiences the consequences of the other
person’s actions
• Appropriate for simple tasks
• Numerous trials and rehearsals
unnecessary
• No apparent reward is administered in
observation
Observational Learning (cont.)
• Largely self-regulated
• Examples of this form: training films,
training manuals, lectures, role playing
• Many believe this form is most successful
when external rewards are provided
Instrumental, or Operant,
Conditioning
• B.F. Skinner developed this approach
• Based on premise that human behavior in
organizations is “instrumental”
• People act on their surroundings as well
as deliberately move into and out of
different situations
Instrumental, or Operant,
Conditioning (cont.)
• Reinforcement is used in conjunction
with a response:
– Positive reinforcement: any event
used to increase frequency of desired
response
– Negative reinforcement: any event
that, when removed, increases
frequency of a response
Law of Effect
• Behavior that is followed by a positive
response is more likely to recur while
behavior that is followed by an
undesirable response is less likely to
recur
Behavior Modification
(OB Mod)
• The application of operant conditioning
in organizational settings is known as OB
Mod
• Involves
– Acquiring complex behaviors: shaping
– Maintaining desired behaviors
Acquiring Complex Behaviors:
Shaping
• Reinforcing small approximations of the
final desired behavior
Maintaining Desired
Behaviors
• Extinction: when a response ceases to
occur due to the removal of
reinforcement
– Managers seek to increase the strength of
desired responses so desired behavior will
not disappear if reinforcement is removed
Maintaining Desired
Behaviors (cont.)
• Resistance to Extinction: ensuring the
responses persist in the absence of
reinforcement
• Partial reinforcement: providing
reinforcements on an intermittent basis;
proven to be more successful in
increasing resistance to extinction
Maintaining Desired
Behaviors (cont.)
• Continuous reinforcement: when
employee behaviors are followed with
reinforcement after each and every
occurrence
Schedules of Reinforcement
• Schedules of reinforcement are used
when reinforcement is partial
• Interval Schedule: Reinforces behavior
on basis of time elapsed
• Ratio Schedule: Number of times the
behavior is performed
Schedules of Reinforcement
(cont.)
• Fixed Schedule: Amount of time/number
of behaviors is specified in advance
• Variable Schedule: Amount of
time/number of behaviors vary
Interval Schedule
• The amount of time between
reinforcements is the determinant of
scheduling
– Fixed interval: Fixed periods of time
between reinforcements; performance tends
to be poor; little incentive
– Variable interval: Vary the amount of time
the elapses between reinforcement; time
can’t be predicted in advance
Ratio Schedules
• Number of incidences of behaviors
between one reinforcement and the next
is the determinant of scheduling
– Fixed Ratio: involves giving reinforcement in
exchange for a fixed number of responses;
e.g. a piece-rate pay scheme
Ratio Schedules (cont.)
– Variable Ratio: reinforcement after
individual has produced a number of desired
responses, with the precise number varying;
e.g. cash bonuses, public recognition, awards
for good performance
– Most effective schedule is the variable ratio
schedule which is most resistant to extinction
Rules for Applying Operant
Conditioning Principles
1. Use differential rewarding
– Treating all subordinates alike encourages
mediocrity
– Make rewards commensurate with performance to
signal efforts are valued
2. Identify valued rewards for individual
– If a manager hopes to influence an employee’s
behavior through the use of rewards, the rewards
must have value to the employee.
Rules for Applying Operant
Conditioning Principles
(cont.)
3. Instruct subordinates on how rewards are tied
to performance
– If employees understand how rewards and
performance are tied together, they may construct
behaviors to earn rewards.
4. Provide informative feedback on performance
– Feedback itself is rewarding, and also so that
behavior can be molded to match desired standards.
Does OB Mod Work?
• Useful approach to improving employee
performance
• Recent review of 10 Organizations that
experimented with OB Mod
– Nine of the 10 cases have positive effect
Controversies Surrounding
OB Mod
• Studies have generally supported OB
Mod program effectiveness
• Opponents accuse OB Mod of being
manipulative, deliberately controlling
behavior of others in a “Big Brother”
fashion
• Unoriginal, i.e., similar to scientific
management
Controversies Surrounding
OB Mod (cont.)
• Unpleasant questions arise as to whether
firms should condone such programs
• Ignoring the importance of internally
mediated rewards; e.g. motivation from
enjoyment
Controversies Surrounding
OB Mod (cont.)
• Another body of criticism comes from
studies that were oriented to determine
the mental processes that caused the
responses to operant conditioning
techniques
The Role of Punishment
• Defined as an undesirable event that
follows a behavior it intends to eliminate
• Does little to alter undesirable behavior,
but instead encourages the offender to
seek other ways to engage in the behavior
• May motivate the offender to engage in
revenge tactics
Alternatives to Punishment
• Creating work settings where undesirable
behaviors are unlikely to occur
• Permit extinction to set in by removing
the reinforcement that may have initially
fueled the person to engage in
undesirable behaviors
Alternatives to Punishment
(cont.)
• Ignore events that are not costly to the
organization, or that were exceptions to
standard policies
Effective Punishment
• Punishment may be appropriate:
– When undesirable behavior is so serious it
warrants some form of punishment
– When avoidance of circumstances that lead
to undesirable behaviors is impossible, or too
costly
– When the undesirable behavior provides its
own reward, and thus resistance to
extinction is high
Attributes of Effective
Punishment
• Focus on behaviors, making punishment
impersonal
• Act immediately
• Make the punishment severe enough
• Use punishment reliably, in each case of
specified undesired behavior
• Do not discriminate across employees,
i.e., make it uniform
Guidelines for Administering
Discipline
• The question of how to deliver it depends
on:
– Supervisor’s personal style of leadership
– Employee’s background
– Size of the organization
Progressive Discipline
• Uses penalties that are increased
according to the frequency and severity
of infractions
• Consists of series of steps that gradually
impose increasingly severe penalties
• At every step the employee is aware that
actions rest on company policies
Progressive Discipline
(cont.)
• Many companies pose a list of how
various infractions will be treated
Conducting a Disciplinary
Meeting
•
•
•
•
Have a private meeting with the offender
Don’t lose your cool
Be certain of your facts; back up charges
Select an appropriate punishment,
severity should match offense
Conducting a Disciplinary
Meeting (cont.)
• Accomplish the following three
objectives:
– State what is wrong
– State what you expect
– State what happens if you don’t get what
you expect
• Keep records