FEM 3001
(INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN DEVELOPMENT)
INSTRUCTOR
DR SITI NOR BINTI YAACOB
JPMPK, FEM
CONTACT NO
PHONE: 03-89467088
E-MAIL: sitinor@putra.upm.edu.my
FEM 3001 is the basic course in your
entire studies
OUTLINE
 UNIT 1 - PHYLOSOPHY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT:
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HISTORY, RELIGION & THEORY
UNIT 2 - HUMAN DEVELOPMENT IN ECOLOGICAL
CONTEXTS
UNIT 3 - LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT
UNIT 4 - FITRAH AND POTENTIALS
UNIT 5 - VALUES AND CULTURE
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UNIT 1:
PHYLOSOPHY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: HISTORY,
RELIGION & THEORY
 What is Human Development?
 The Concept of Insan & Human Beings
 Human Development
 The Creation of Human Beings
 The Scientific Approach
 The Religious Perspective
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What is Human Development?
Definition:
• Scientific study of processes of change and stability of human beings
(from conception till death)
• Systematic changes and continuities in the individual that occur
between conception and death, or from “womb to tomb.” (from book
Sigelman & Rider, 2009)
• The systematic changes and continuities fall into three broad
domains:
• Physical development: growth of body
• Cognitive development: changes in perception, language, memory.
• Psychosocial development: motives, personality traits,
interpersonal skill and relationship.
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Basis philosophy and concepts of human development
 human as God-created being  INSAN
In this course, insan refers to universal
understandings of human-beings
Insan in the context of their environments; where
interactions & transactions take place; which will in
turn influence & will be influencing quality of life &
quality of the environment.
Focus on human beings across life cycle
Ecological perspective – broad “tool” to understand
human beings as person- in-environment
Base: Faith in God; Goals: Quality of life, quality of
environment
Through scientific processes of describing,
explaining, predicting & modifying of behaviour
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The creation of human beings
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Using developmental approach, studies on human development
normally have been focussing on child development
During the 6th – 15th century , children were assumed as mini adults,
preformationism; children are known as persons who need protection
16th century : The religious perspective (Protestan) demanded parents
to be strict in nurturing their children in order for them to be able to
tell right from wrong
17th century: John Locke pointed the importance of human dignity;
respects; > behavioural
Children, known as tabula rasa (blank slate); originally “pure”; strated
form nothing; need to be guided through experiences
Children were viewed as passive mechanistic, development
occurred continuously; and parents mould their children’s
behaviour through warmth nurturing
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Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712 – 1778) – a French philosopher;
claimed that children are noble savages (have natural tendency/sense
of differentiating right from wrong; can grow to become healthy
adults
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Children have internal senses; cognitive ability & unique emotions
that are prone to be abused / corrupted by adults who trained them
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Rousseau introduced the stages of development and maturity
concepts
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Aristotle: HumChildren are organismic (active designer of their own
destiny); development does not occur continuously, but in stages;
nature’s role in determining changes in life
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Human beings are the thinking, social, political animal who run
various functions in order to live
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THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH…
The first scientific investigations of development were
undertaken on late 19th century.
Scholars observe the growth and development of their own
children, and publish in the form of baby biographies.
The most influential baby biographer was Charles Darwin.
Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882), British “naturalist”
Darwin studied variations in plants and animal species
No 2 items/individuals/specimens that are 100% the same
The founder of the evolution theory
Darwin’s evolutionary perspective and studies of the
development of embryos strongly influenced early theories of
human development, which emphasized universal, biological
based maturational changes.
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 2 basic principles of the evolution theory: natural selection &
survival of the fittest
 Those who survived will continue to live for a long time
reproduce & continue to generate quality characteristics for
their next generations
 Focus: Physical & behavioural adaptations
 Darwin claimed that at the early stage (prenatal) some species
are similar
 He concluded that all species including human beings have the
same ancestors
 This has created debates and finally proven to be false.
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 Natural selection: some species are naturally selected to survive
in certain environment because they have the fit with
characteristic  able to adapt; Others … died / perished
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Normative Era
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research on child development, first president of the American
Psychological Association.
He collects more objective data on large samples of individuals 
questionnaire
Influential book: adolescence (1904)
Adolescence was a time of emotional ups and downs and rapid
changes.
Substantial changes in brain and in cognitive and social functioning
do take place during adolescence.
With Arnold Gesell (1880 – 1961) – they claimed human development
as “genetically determined, develop automatically.. Just like flowers”
The normative method refers to research on human behaviour based
on responses from MANY respondents; often linked with certain age
group.
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• G. Stanley Hall (1846 – 1924), American psychologist, fore father of
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• Alfred Binet (1857 – 1911), French
Psychologist, applied normative method to
test human intelligence
• Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test
• It initiated heated debates over the issue of
nature versus nurture
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Mental/Cognitive Testing Era
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• Human beings are not machines (there are mind & spirit); not
animals nor angels, and not GOD who creates himself
• In Islam, human beings are created by Allah in the best form of
creation, to become khalifah
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THE RELIGIOUS PERSPECTIVE
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• Surah Al-Hijr (26) yang bermaksud:
• “Dan sesungguhnya kami (Allah) telah menciptakan manusia
(Adam) dari tanah liat kering, (yang berasal) dari tanah lumpur
hitam yang diberi bentuk
•
• “Sesungguhnya telah kami (Allah) ciptakan manusia itu di dalam
sebaik-baik cara, kami menjadikan sesuatu kelengkapan sesuai
dengan keadaannya”
Surah Al-Mu’minun (12 – 14) yang bermaksud:
• “Dan sesungguhnya Kami telah menciptakan manusia dari
(saripati) tanah. Kemudian Kami jadikan (saritanah) itu airmani
yang tersimpan dalam tempat yang kukuh (rahim). Lalu kami
jadikan air mani itu segumpal darah, lalu gumpalan darah itu
Kami jadikan segumpal daging, dan Kami jadikan gumpalan
daging itu tulang belulang, lalu kami lapisi tulang belulang itu
dengan daging. Kemudian Kami bentuk ia menjadi makhluk yang
lain. Maha Suci Allah, sebaik-baik pencipta
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• Surah At-Tin: (4) yang bermaksud:
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 Men were created with certain purpose (amanah) – to function as
khalifah who obeys his Creator. The coordination of both mind and spirit
forms INSAN
 Spiritual = related with 4 elements: spirit, the nafs, mind, and qalb
 Roh = it’s God’s business;
 Nafsu – bases for the reality of human beings: 3 levels of nafsu that
urge or motivate behaviour: Ammarah, Lawwamah, Mutmainnah)
 Akal – bases for kemuliaan; mengetahui segala sesuatu
 Qalbu (hati)- merasa; asas keperibadian
 Men have tendencies for good and bad deeds. Originally pure and clean,
given mind to think, able to strive, given the urgency to need & want; and
bestowed with energy
 The QALB plays a big role in determining personality & behaviour where
a person has to be responsible for
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A PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT
 Every age period of life is important
 Focus: processes that took place
 Perspectives that support this philosophy:
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VARIOUS PERSPECTIVES ON HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT…
Development is multi dimensional & inter disciplinary
Development continues through the life span
Both heredity & environment influence development
Development reflects both continuity & discontinuity
Development is cumulative
Development reflects both stability & change
Development is variable
Development is sometimes cyclical & repetitive
Development reflects individual differences
Development reflects cultural differences
Development influences are reciprocal
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New (additional) perspective:
Development involves changing of allocation & resources.
Investment of resources (time, energy, talent,
money & social support) are varied across life span
Resources are used for GROWTH, MAINTENANCE,
RECOVERY, DEALING WITH LOSS
During childhood / young adulthood - resources
go for growth; mid-life - balanced use; old age –
regulations of losses.
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UNIT 2:
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT IN ECOLOGICAL
CONTEXT
Ecological Background
 We do not live in isolation – we interact
 Environment: everything outside the system that we (the
organism) live in
 Human beings = biological organism + social organism
that interact and have transactions with(in) the
environment
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The History Behind Ecological Approach
Many proponents of ecological concepts.
Aristotle and Plato
The word “ecology” was introduced by Ernest Haeckel (1969) –
German zoologist
Originated from Greek term – Oikus (home/family)
Human ecology – the study of individual in the context of family,
household and environment.
Individual development - interaction between the environment and
heredity.
A Chemist, Ellen Swallow Richards proposed a Scientific field of
study to examine the influence of home environment on the family.
Ellen studied air and water quality, sanitation, food & nutrition.
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General System Theory
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Basic concepts from the General Systems theory are applied
 Holistic perspective = holism, looking at living nature as interacting
wholes (the whole is greater than the sum of the parts)
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Every system has 4 elements:
 Objects = parts of the system; what the system is made of (in a family
– each member = object); basic element of the system
 Attributes = qualities/properties of the system & its members;
indicate characteristics; uniqueness
 Relationships = connection between / among the elements of the
system (between object-environment)
 Environment = anything that surrounds; can affect systems 
understanding person-in context
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What is ECOSYSTEM? ..
 A type of system .. Ecological system
 Made up of living organism (O) with their environments (E)
 originates from ecology: a science that investigate & describe
reciprocal relationships between O & E)
 Basis: a survival unit never consist of O or species in a static
environment; but rather, that it is an ecosystem with all O in
reciprocal relationships with each other & with E
 Human behavior is influenced by the environment and vice versa
 Even though the environment changes due to technology, human
beings need to impose control on life & environment to ascertain
quality of life
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 Ecosytem seek a steady / stable / balanced state of existence 
HOMEOSTASIS
 Organism adapts to reach homeostasis
ENVIRONMENT
Processing
Output
Input
Feedback
ENVIRONMENT
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 Bases: Human development is studied from the context of person-inenvironment
 The principle: all growth & development occur in the context of
relationships
 It’s an inter-disciplinary concept.
 To integrate & link various human & family issues  holistic & in a
comprehensive manner to ensure a global plan of action.
 Human ecology = a field of study that considers individuals & families
within their environment & the relationships between them
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Human Ecological System Perspective
System Theory
Ecological Theory
Objects +
Attributes +
Relationships +
Environment +
Organism +
Environment +
Interaction +
Human Ecology
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6 assumptions for the human ecological
framework
1.
Human-beings are not passive receivers of information & inputs
2.
Systems are dynamic  always changing
3.
Individuals & social systems have the capacity to change (they
also wish to change)
4.
Changing one element of a system will cause change(s) to other
parts
5.
Systems rely interdependently on one another to operate
6.
All systems have boundaries
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Pioneer:
 Beatrice Paolucci (Michigan State University) employed the homeeconomics approach
 Suggested that family is a social system that depend on:
 The natural environment for physical maintenance
 Social environment for human values; meaning and quality of life.
 Margaret Buboltz & Susan Sontag (Michigan State University) continue
Paolucci’s work
 Proposed 3 environments that surround human beings:
 Natural - biophysical
 Socio-cultural
 Technology-human constructed
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ENVIRONMENT
 Physical, biological, social, economic, political, esthetics & structure
surroundings; contexts for human behavioral & growth/development
 Can be classified according to resources within them.
 Natural / bio-physical environment
 Mother-nature resources
 Water, earth, snow, time, plants, animals, fossil, minerals
 Can be beneficial for human consumptions
 Socio cultural environment
 Social institution - kinship, religion, politic, economy, legal, recreation
or symbolic group
 Determines civilization & cultural system
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 Technology – Human Constructed Environment
 Buildings, bridge, hydro-electric, houses, highway
 Built using materials from the natural environment
 Science and technology advancement helps to improve quality of
life; abuse of it may destroy life
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Family Ecosystem Model [Bubolz & Sontag; 1990]
Family
Technology-human
constructed
Socio-cultural
Natural-biophysical
TIME – Past, Present, Future
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Human Ecology:
 Urie Bronfenbrenner (Cornell University) focused on contextual aspects
of human development
 He introduced 5 environmental systems: micro, meso, exo, macro &
chrono.
 Classification based on size of the environment
 MICRO  small
 MACRO  big
 Bronfenbrenner (1979): the ecology of human development based upon
the relationships between human beings & context where they interact or
make transactions (exchange resources)
 The 5 systems are embedded within each other; the nearest environment
is the environment where the individual resides & develops
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MICROSYSTEM
 An immediate physical and social environment in which the
individual interact with and influences by them.
 The nearest environment to the individuals
 A pattern of activities, roles & interpersonal relations
experienced by the developing person in a given setting with
particular physical & material characteristics
 Eg: Home environment & classroom are micro environments
for primary school children
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MESOSYSTEM
 Comprises the interrelations among 2 or more settings in which
the developing person actively participates
 Example:
Mesosystem for a child is the relationship between home,
neighbor, and school
Marital conflict (one microsystem) influence child
performances in school (a second microsystem)
Child: relations between home-school & neighborhood;
Adults: family-work-social life
 It is a system for the micro system
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EXOSYSTEM
 Refers to > 1 settings that do not involve the developing
person as an active participant, but in which events occur
that affect, or are affected by what happens in the setting
containing the developing person
Eg: exosystem of a child might include the parent’s place of
work, a school attended by his older siblings, activities of
the neighborhood etc
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MACROSYSTEM
 Abstract in nature : refers to consistencies, in the form &
content of lower order system (micro, meso, exo) that exist,
or could exist, at the level of subculture or the culture as a
whole along with any belief systems or ideology underlying
such consistencies.
 eg: socio-cultural / customs; legal systems, religion,
education, defense system.
 space is perceived differently across cultures – what
determined the differences? Law? Religion? Custom?
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CHRONOSYSTEM
 Refers to patterns of events & transitions that take place in
individual’s environment through-out his/her life
 An idea that changes in people and their environment
occur in time frame and unfold in particular patterns over
a person’s lifetime.
 The element of TIME is important in this system
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MACROSISTEM
EXOSYSTEM
Pattern of
behaviour
Value system
MESOSYSTEM
MICROSYSTEM
CHRONOSYSTEM
Pattern of
events &
changes in
structure
according to
time
Family
INDIVIDU
School
Community
Government agencies
Friends
Work place
Belief system
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The importance of the ecological perspective in understanding
human development:
 It takes the holistic approach (considers multiple factors
regarding person – in – context). Focuses on wholeness..
 Any phenomenon is seen from multiple perspectives - aiming
to get the obtain high quality of life / environment
 Allows for an integrated plan of action – balanced & holistic;
lend to improve Quality of life (individual, family, community…)
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 Environments do not DETERMINE human
behavior; but they can influence them through :
limiting / blocking/ allowing/ facilitating /
opening for opportunities & possibilities
 Families do not exist in isolation from the other
environments, rather, they have a degree of
control and freedom on their interactions /
transactions with the environment & acquisition
of resources
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 Decisions & actions that are taken by individual/
families will give an impact on the community,
culture, other environments … the WORLD.
 The world’s ecological well-being depends on the
decisions & actions by the nation… down to the
individual & families
 Decisions made at macro level or even at the
WOLRD’s platform, will directly or indirectly
impacting the individual & families.
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Basic principles in ecological model (Conrad & Novick, 1996)
 Human development is studied through the person-in-environment
perspective
 Multiple & different environments experienced by individuals influenced
the growth & development of individuals
 Every environment has its risks & protective factors
 The interactions between individuals & environment are two-way /
reciprocal. It creates a complex feedback system
 Individual & family will always face changes & growth. Stress, coping &
adaptation are normal developmental experiences.
 The general human/family ecological focused on the near environment
(people, materials) which provide physical context & prime base for
personal & familial activities
 The community system (neighborhood, market, schools,
mosques/church/temple are included
 The macro (bigger) environments may also influence individual & family.
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 Human development occurs within the family context
through family processes & activities
 These processes & activities are needed and influenced by
the reciprocal interactions with & within the naturalphysical; human constructed & socio-cultural
environments
 The outcome  QUALITY OF LIFE & ENVIRONMENT
 Human Q of life: To what extend human needs, values &
goals are met & how are they obtained
 Q of environment = safety, health, coping strategy,
adequacy, justice… in providing natural resources,
economic, social needs & support.
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SUMMARY
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The ecological perspective encourages the followings criteria in
order to understand human beings:
1. An integrated thinking
2
Creative thinking
3
A comprehensive focus of dynamic
4
Systemic understanding
5
Ethical reasoning
5
Variability
5
Practical action
5
Self understanding
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OTHER THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
 Definition
 Issues in Human Development
 Freud and Erikson: Psychoanalytic Theory
 Learning Theory
 Piaget: Cognitive Theory
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Definition
 A set of interrelated statements that provides an
explanation for a class of events. (from book
Crandell, Crandell, & Zanden, 2009)
 A set of ideas proposed to describe and explain
certain phenomena. (from book Sigelman & Rider,
2009)
 A good theory helps us to describe, predict, and
explain human development.
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Issues in Human Development
Nature-nurture
Is development primarily the product of genes, biology, and
maturation-or of experience, learning, and social influences?
Goodness-Badness of
Human Nature
Are humans innately good, innately bad, neither, or both?
Activity-Passivity
Do humans actively shape their own environments and
contribute to their own development-or are they passively
shaped by forces beyond their control?
ContinuityDiscontinuity
Do humans change gradually and in quantitative ways-or do
they progress through qualitative different stages and change
dramatically into different beings?
Universality-Context
Specificity
Is development similar from person to person and from
culture to culture- or do pathways of development vary
considerably depending on the social contexts?
From book Sigelman & Rider, 2009, pg33
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Freud (1856-1939): Psychoanalytic Theory

He proposed that people are driven by motives and emotional
conflicts of which they are largely unaware and that they are
shaped by their earliest experiences in life.

Each people has certain amount of psychic energy that can be
used to satisfy basic urges. They are divided into three
components:

Id: an impulsive, irrational part of the personality whose mission is
to satisfy the instincts. People seek immediate gratification.
Example: infants cry when they are hungry until their needs are
met.

Ego: rational side of the individual that tries to find realistic way of
gratifying the instincts. Ego emerged during infants. Example:
toddler lead dad to kitchen and say “cookie” when he/she hungry.

Superego: internalized moral standards. From 3-6 years old.
Example: not violating the rules and may feel shame if they do.
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Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
Oral stage (birth to 1
year)
Lobido is focused on the mouth as a source of pleasure.
Obtaining oral gratification from a mother figure is critical to
later development.
Anal stage (1 to 3 years) Libido is focused on the anus, and toilet training creates conflicts
between the child’s biological urges and the society’s demands.
Phallic stage (3 to 6
years)
Libido centers on the genitals. Resolution of the Oedipus or the
Electra complex results in identification with the same-sex parent
and development of the superego.
Latent period (6 to 12
years)
Libido is quiet; psychic energy is invested in schoolwork and play
with same-sex friends.
Genital stage (12 years
and older)
Puberty reawakens the sexual instincts as youth seek to establish
mature sexual relationships and pursue the biological goal of
reproduction.
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Erikson (1902-1994): Neo-Freudian Psychoanalytic Theory

Concern with inner dynamics of personality and it
evolves through systematic stages.

He proposed that personality continues to develop
over the entire life span.

Erikson concerned with psychosocial development,
or development of the person within a social
context.
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Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
Trust vs. mistrust
(birth to 1 year)
Infants must learn to trust their caregivers to meet their needs. Responsive
parenting is critical.
Autonomy vs.
shame and doubt (1
to 3 years)
Children must learn to be autonomous- to assert their wills and do things for
themselves-or they will doubt their abilities
Initiative vs. guilt (3
to 6 years)
Preschoolers develop initiative by devising and carrying out bold plans, but
they must be learn not to impinge on the right of others.
Industry vs.
inferiority (6 to 12
years)
Children must master important social and academic skills and keep up with
their peers, otherwise, they will feel inferior.
Identity vs. role
confusion (12 to 20
years)
Adolescents ask who they are and must establish social and vocational
identities, otherwise, they will remain confused about the roles they should
play as adults.
Intimacy vs.
isolation (20 to 40
years)
Young adults seek to form a shared identity with another person, but may fear
intimacy and experience loneliness and isolation.
Generativity vs.
stagnation (40 to 65
years)
Middle-aged adults must feel that they are producing something that will
outlive them, either as parents or as workers, otherwise, they will become
stagnation and self-centered.
Integrity vs. despair
(65 years and older)
Older adults must come to view their lives as meaningful to face death with
out worries and regrets.
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LEARNING: Watson (1913): classical conditioning

He believed that human development and functioning
should be based on observations of overt behaviours
rather than on speculations about unobservable cognitive
and emotional process.

Classical conditioning: simple form of learning in which a
stimulus that initially had no effect on the individual
comes to elicit a response through its association with a
stimulus that already elicit the response.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): An unlearned stimulus

Unconditioned response (UR): a response come from UCS

Conditioned stimulus (CS): A neutral stimulus come first
and following by UR. Then the neutral stimulus will
become CS

Conditioned response (CR): a response come from CS
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LEARNING: Skinner: Operant Conditioning





He emphasized on the role of environment in
controlling behavior.
Positive punishment: occurs when an unpleasant
event is added to the situation following a
behavior.
Negative punishment: occurs when something
pleasant is removed from the situation following
the behavior.
Positive reinforcement: something has been
added to the situation, reinforcement means
strengthened.
Negative reinforcement: occurs when a
behavioral tendency is strengthened because
something negative or unpleasant is removed
from the situation.
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Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
 Human are cognitive beings whose active
processing of information plays a critical role in
their learning, behavior, and development.
 This theory highlighting that observational
learning as the most important mechanism
through which human behavior changes, Bandura
made his cognitive emphasis clear.
 Observational learning: learning by observing the
behavior of other people (or call models).
 Example: a child may learn how to speak a
language, tackle math problems, smoke, and
others, by imitating others.
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Piaget (1896-1980): Cognitive Development Theory
 Emphasized on cognitive development.
Constructivism:
 Piaget viewed intelligence as a process that helps
an organism adapt to its environment.
 A children actively construct new understandings
of the world based on their experiences.
 Children use their current understandings of the
world to help them solve problems, they also
revise their understandings to make them fit
reality better.
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Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development
Sensorimotor
(birth to 2 years)
Infants use their sense and motor actions to explore and understand
the world. At the start they have only innate reflexes, but they
develop increasingly “intelligent” actions. By the end, they are
capable of symbolic though using images or words and can therefore
plan solutions to problems mentally.
Preoperational (2
to 7 years)
Preschoolers use their capacity for symbolic thought to develop
language, engage in pretend play, and solve problems. Their thinking
is not yet logical. They are egocentric and are easily fooled by
perceptions because they cannot rely on logical operations.
Concrete
operations (7 to
11 years)
School-age children acquire concrete logical operations that allow
them to mentally classify, add, and otherwise act on concrete objects
in their heads. They can solve practical, real-world problems through
a trial-and-error approach but have difficulty with hypothetical and
abstract problems.
Formal operations
(11 to 12 years
and older)
Adolescents can think about abstract concepts and purely
hypothetical possibilities and can trace the long-range consequences
of possible actions. With age and experience, they can form
hypotheses and systematically test them using the scientific method.
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UNIT 3:
LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT
 Focus on development across life stages of life).
 It begins with conception and ends with death.
 Divided into various stages; based on growth & changes .
 In general, there are common/ universal characteristics for
each stage; however, there are also unique characteristics
amongst individuals: (characters, time, duration).
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Stages in life:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Conception & pregnancy
Birth
Infant (1st two years following birth)
Early childhood (toddler) (3 - 6 years of age)
Middle childhood (7 – 12 years of age)
Early adolescence (13 - 15 years of age)
Late adolescence (16 – 19 years of age)
Early adulthood (20-30’s)
Middle adulthood (40-50’s)
Late adulthood (above 60)
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CONCEPTIONS & PREGNANCY





Prenatal stage; the 1st stage of life
Starts with the conception between ovum & sperm forming zygote
Developmental stages during prenatal:
a)
Germinal Period – starts from conception to implantation (takes
about 14 days).
b)
Embryonic period – from 2 weeks to 8 weeks after conception
c)
Fatal period – from 8 weeks to the end of pregnancy
A normal pregnancy lasts for 9 months & 10 days; divided into 3
trimesters (basically for medical purposes):
1.
1st Trimester (early pregnancy – 3rd month) – very crucial stage
2.
2nd Trimester (4th – 6th month)
3.
3rd Trimester (last 3 months)
Fetus develops throughout pregnancy; Influenced by both genetic &
environmental factors; Mothers-to-be experienced tremendous changes –
physical, emotional; particularly due to the changes in hormonal level
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Challenges:

Environment may influence fetal development

Teratogens = an agent in the environment that can cause fetal
defect/ abnormalities/ death (miscarriages)

The effect is varied, depending upon:

Amount & period of exposure.

Time of exposure.

Genetic factors (of mother & fetus).

The present of other teratogens .
Critical period during prenata:
1.
2.
3.
Germinal/(zygote) = before implantation; teratogens < effect;
If exposed; the cells collapsed (miscarriage)
Embrionic: Most critical stage – major development occur
rapidly during this period
Fetal: Not as severe, but main organs can be easily damaged:
brain, eyes; genital
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Types of teratogens (examples)
 Medication (e.g.: thalidomide, diethylstilbestrol, aspirin)
– may cause bodily defect; harm reproductive function;
cancer, low birth weight, death
 Drugs – various physical & mental damages
 Cigarettes – (primary & secondary): low birth weight;
premature birth, miscarriage; death; cancer
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Types of teratogens (examples)
 Alcohol – brain damage, abnormal feature (facial), eyes
are widely apart, thinner upper lip, small head size
 Radiation – cancer, miscarriage, abnormal physical
growth, brain damages,, physical & mental retardation;
harm formation of skull & eyes
 Others: rubella, STD - HIV/AIDS, bacteria/parasite i.e.
toxoplasmosis (raw meat, cat’s feces)
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Figure 2.2
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Other factors:
 Food & nutrition
 Stress/depression (emotional health)
 Rh. factor (mismatch between fetus & mother) Rh. factor –
is a blood protein
 Mother’s age
 Number of pregnancy / gaps in-between
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Infant stage (0-2 years following birth)
Infants develop tremendously – physical (motor); senses; emotional;
social & emotional
 Primary social agents play significant role to establish various
development of the infant
 Infant learns to trust or distrust people; learns how to express love &
affections; tries to master stages of development (esp. physical)
 Infants temperaments can be detected at this stage

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Early childhood (3 - 6 years)
 Preschool age (++ toddler)
 Rapid growth – physical; social, cognitive &
language.
 Develops self concept, identity (early stage);
gender role; loves to play with others
 Effective parent-child relationship is critical
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Middle Childhood (7- 12 years)
 Ability in reading, writing, maths is developed
 Tries to think logically, to understand the “world”
 School is another importan micro system
 Rapid growth in psycho-social & moral dev.
 Good family relationship is critical
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Early adolescence (13 – 15)





Transitional period between childhood & adulthood
Rapid growth – earlier among girls (puberty)
Sexual maturity; formal operations thinking
Wanting freedom, autonomy; prefer peers ?
Earlier & stablished relationships since small will ease the
adjustments for adolescents & parents
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Late adolescence (16 - 19 years)
 Formation of self identity is critical aspect of development
at this stage
 Plan for future career ; academic pursuits; working
 Establish relationship with partners of opposite sex 
special relationship
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Early adulthood (20’s & 30’s)
 Biggest challenge: to establish intimate realtionship;
determine career of choice & get the job
 Various major life decisions: marriage, becoming parents,
establishment of career
 Some early adults dace divorce at this stage; remarriage
 Many major life decisions at this stage will influence later
stages
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Middle adulthood (40’s – 50’s)





Running out of time
Self reflect, causes mid-life crisis
Obtain > freedom esp. if all children left home
Obtain personal & social responsibilities, successful career
Adaptations are done especially if there are changes (in any
other aspects) – i.e. promotions  moving to another
state
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Late adulthood (> 60)
 Need to adjust & adapt since major changes occur in almost
all aspects of life
 Focus on health care to maintain overall well-being
 Some late adults use their time wisely by giving back to the
family / society/ country using their knowledge &
experiences.
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Challenges across life-cycle:
 Various capacity, types, durations, timing
 Various factors may influence them or influence the
impact of the challenges
 Risc factors; protective factors
 A resilient person can survive best
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DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS ….
 Robert Havighurst (1953) – theory of
developmental tasks.
 Emphasized the interrelationship of
physical, social, emotional, and
intellectual aspects of development.
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DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS ….
 Definition:
A developmental task is a task to be performed
or achieved during a certain period in a
person’s life.
It represents culture's definition of "normal"
development at different points in the life
span.
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DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS ….
 Definition:
It consist of a set of skills and competences
that are acquired as the person gains
increased mastery over the environment.
Many developmental tasks are related to the
society in which an individual lives .
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DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS ….
 Most people accomplish developmental tasks in a certain
order.
 Successfully accomplish one task before going on to a
task at the next level.
 Interrelationship of the factors.
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DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS ….
NO
1
2
LIFE STAGE
INFANCY
TODDLERHOOD
NO
DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS
1
Social attachment
2
Sensori-motor intelligence and primitive
causality
3
Object permanence
4
Maturation of motor function
1
Self-control
2
Language development
3
Fantasy and play
4
Elaboration of locomotion.
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DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS ….
NO LIFE STAGE
3
4
EARLY SCHOOL AGE
MIDDLE SCHOOL AGE
NO
DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS
1
Sex role identification
2
Early moral development
3
Concrete operations
4
Group play
1
Social cooperation
2
Self-evaluation
3
Skill learning
4
Team play
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DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS ….
NO LIFE STAGE
5
6
EARLY ADOLESCENCE
LATER ADOELSCENCE
NO
DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS
1
Physical maturation
2
Formal operations
3
Membership in the peer group
4
Heterosexual relationships
1
Autonomy from parents
2
Sex role identity
3
Internalized morality
4
Career choice
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DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS ….
NO LIFE STAGE
7
8
EARLY ADULTHOOD
MIDDLE ADULTHOOD
NO
DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS
1
Marriage
2
Childbearing
3
Work
4
Lifestyle
1
Management of the household
2
Child rearing
3
Management of a career
4
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DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS ….
NO LIFE STAGE
9
LATER ADULTHOOD
NO
DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS
1
Redirection of energy into new roles
2
Acceptance of one life
3
Developing a point of view about death
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PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS….
NO
LIFE STAGE
PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS
1
INFANCY
Trust versus mistrust
2
TODDLERHOOD
Autonomy versus shame and doubt
3
EARLY SCHOOL AGE
Initiative versus guilt
4
MIDDLE SCHOOL AGE
Industry versus inferiority
5
ADOLESCENCE
Identity versus role diffusion
6
YOUNG ADULTHOOD
Intimacy versus isolation
7
MIDDLE ADULTHOOD
Generativity versus stagnation
8
LATER ADULTHOOD
Integrity versus despair
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UNIT 4:
Human Nature – “FITRAH” & POTENTIAL
Human nature:
An innate natural predisposition which cannot change – exist at
birth in all human beings.
natural/ innate characteristics; BORN with us
Examples: talent, physical ability; cognition & emotion
Bestowed by the CREATOR - for the benefit of mankind
Every human beings born into this world has natural
characteristics that are “pure” & “perfect”
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Human Nature – “FITRAH”
Literal meaning – creation, cause a thing to exist for the first
time, and the natural constitution with which a child is
created in mother’s womb.
Fitrah – is not a dormant potential.
Fitrah (religious) – faculty (ability, power) created in mankind.
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Negative influences by the nurturing
processes & low quality environment
may disturb the purity
2 types of human’s natural
characteristics:
Physical
Spiritual
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PHYSICAL
 Human beings need 3 basic elements to
survive:
 Food
 Clothing
 Shelter
 Without all these / insufficiency of any may
limit chances for human beings to live
comfortably
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SPIRITUAL
It is part of human nature to seek for the truth
& belief in God
In accord with the nature: men are created
by God
Spiritual nature = human’s instinct about
believing in God, the Creator
The instinct to find faiths / religion is born
within every mankind;
Men need to fulfil this need in order to live
accordingly
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HIERARCHY OF NEEDS



To ensure the growth of human’s natural characteristic; there
are several basic needs that need to be fulfilled
Abraham Maslow identified 5 basic needs of human beings
The needs are arranged in a hierarchical order showing the
existence of levels/stages
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 Starts
with first level, most basic =
physiological needs; highest level is the
self-actualization needs.
 Each human beings must fulfil the most
basic needs before proceeding to the
next level.
 The needs are not necessarily fulfilled in
any particular order; some needs may
be fulfilled simultaneously
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•
The ability or inability of individuals
to fulfil all 5 level of needs will
influence his / her perceptions about
life & the environments
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HUMAN POTENTIALS

Human potentials = latent ability / capability

Also known as possibilities in oneself


Potentials need to be stimulated in order for it to be tapped /
made known and grow
Like Fitrah, potentials are also bestowed by God, the Creator.
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•
•
•
•
•
Potentials are part of Fitrah; at a lower stage than fitrah
Fitrah will continue to grow even without stimulation; but
potentials will be hindered / limited or never made known
unless stimulated
Quality development is an outcome of quality stimulation
e.g.: a normal child will know how to talk eventually even
without proper training, which is Fitrah’
However, if the child is trained in other language than his /
her own, he or she may master that language eventually
•
Stimulation through proper training / exposure to
communication with others, reading materials,
computers or other media
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 Fitrah
= i.e men do not fly
 Potential
= men design means & ways to enable
them to fly (aircraft)
 Men
have ability & capability to work on the means
& ways to achieve their ambitions
 It’s
fitrah for human being that potentials can be
molded / honed to grow
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


Potentials can also be viewed from the
physical & spiritual perspectives
Physically, men have potentials to be involved
in physical activities like sports, farming,
recreation, exercise etc.
Spiritually,
men
have
potentials
to
understand concepts, thinking creatively &
critically; innovative; debate etc in accord
with his or her fitrah
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The importance of understanding fitrah &
potentials …..
 Drive & regulate efforts towards excellence
 According to human’s fitrah, men are born to
make good deeds; therefore no one is born to
destroy or involved in bad things
 Men are born “pure” in all aspects == physical,
mental, social & emotional
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 Dysfunctional
purity.
environment may disrupt the
• Eg;
Fitrah: to get married & generate; “pure”
means ways to generate the future
generations; failing to do so in accord with
the religious perspective / socio-cultural
guidelines may produce bad generations,
uncivilized (as a product of incest / rape &
adultery), or
• marrying someone of the same sex…
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


Potentials may differ from person to
person; some may be highly potential in
certain area and not in others
Proper planning, quality training may
stimulate development of potentials to
the maximum level; in accord with the
God's rules
Other than quality stimulations; genetic,
age, & other environmental actors may
also influence human’s potentials
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Conclusions





Men are born into this world - equipped with fitrah &
potentials
Fitrah is the natural characteristics; potentials refer to
latent ability in human beings = must be made known
Fitrah is related with the fulfilment of human needs; as
suggested in Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
Various factors in the environment may influence the
growth & development of both fitrah & potentials
Good planning of stimulations are needed to balance up t
he growth of both fitrah & potentials
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UNIT 5:
VALUES & CULTURE
Values are what we prize in life

What we consider most important to us

Help make up the self and affect our self-concept

Are usually based on ideas/ feelings about
conditions.

Ideas WE HAVE OF RIGHT OR WRONG

Internalized concepts of the desirable (i.e.
honesty, sharing, cleanliness, safety, love, cherish,
being alone, having status, committed to, etc.)

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DEFINITIONS





Values are not just ideas…. must be part of action
and way of life.
Guides in what we do, how we do it
Gives directions and security in making and
following our decisions
It influences: perceptions, goal settings and
means to achieve them
It is a criterion in making choices and in
prioritizing the choices
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DEFINITIONS
Value is a concept that act as a system of ideas and beliefs,
gives guidance about the worth of something, influences
our beliefs about what is right or best, and impacts our
decision making process.
VALUING
 is a process by which information, resources and
energy are selected, ordered by importance or
assigned priority in terms of values.
 It includes prizing an idea and acting according.
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Characteristic of values:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Influence behavior and decisions
 Tell what is important; Influence the way we act, react &make decisions.
Are general rather than specific
 Certain value will be a factor in many aspects of one’s life.
Are complex
 Difficult to know which values cause us to act; Problems can arise when
more than one value is influencing thoughts and behavior.
Are expressed in strong feelings
 Closely related to emotions; A discussion based on opposing beliefs may
become heated.
Are important - Have a forceful qualities that directs actions.
Rank differently at different times
• Depending on the situation, certain values can be very important at one
time but less important at other times.
7.
Can change - Result from learning and from experiences and relationships
with others.
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Some other definitions:
Linton, (1954):
“Anything capable of influencing the individual’s decisions in choice situations
and anything capable of producing an emotional response”
Kluckhohn (1971):
“An explicit or implicit conception; distinctive of an individual or
characteristics of a group, of the desirable which influences the selection
from available means and ends of action”
Rokeach, (1973):
“An enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence
is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of
conduct or end-state of existence”
Modes of conduct = instrumental values
End-state of existence= terminal values (ends or goals)
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Terminal values
 Wealthy life
 Revital life
 Achievement (continuous contribution)
 Peaceful world (war free)
 World beauty (natural well-being, arts)
 Equity (brotherhood, equal opportunity)
 Family safety/security (care of members)
 Freedom (independent, right to make
choice)
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Happiness (satisfaction)
Internal harmony (free from internal stress)
Matured love (sexual & spiritual)
Safe nation (protection against attact)
Pleasure in life (happy life/ luxury)
Safety
Self dignity (self concept)
Social dignity (recognition, respect)
True friendship
Wisdom (maturity)
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Instrumental values
 Highly ambitious
 Open
 Capable (efficient, effective)
 Cheerful
 Clean & proper
 Resilient
 Forgiving
 Helpful
 Honest, truthful
 Imaginative, creative
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Independent
Intelligent
Logic, rational
Loving, caring
Obedient
Polite
Responsible, trustworthy
Self-control, discipline
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VALUE CLASSIFICATION

Paolucci (1977) classifed values
into 3 categories:
1.
personal values
2.
moral values
3.
social values
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1. PERSONAL VALUES
Personal values = “character”
•
The manner in which individual copes with
everyday living by applying one’s beliefs and values
•
Expressed through behaviours.
•
self-discipline, self-motivation, punctuality,
orderliness, self-evaluation of one’s efforts,
decisiveness & goal orientation
•
Unique for each individual; - parts of personality
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2. MORAL VALUES
•
•
•
•
•
Give a sense of right and wrong
Concerned with good & right behaviour
Related with the responsibility to live in ways
that protect the freedom & rights of others
Reflect one’s concepts of moral decency
Shown in honesty, dependability, tolerance,
peace of mind, integrity, a sense of fair play,
concern for long range benefits & consistency
between ideals & actions
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3. SOCIAL VALUES
Shown in relationships with others
support, cooperation, recognition,
independence, justice, benevolence,
equity, respect for law, acceptance of
majority rule, sense of interdependence,
recognition of the worth & dignity of every
human being
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VALUE ORIENTATION

•
Ways/style in which beliefs and values are
assimilated from life experiences forming
pattern(s).
Kluckholm (1951) introduced 5 types of value
orientations
1.
Activity orientation
2.
Human nature orientation
3.
People nature orientation
4.
Time orientation
5.
Relational orientation
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I. ACTIVITY ORIENTATION
 It answers Q about the nature of human behaviour
 The answers often related to cultural preferences, may be
either:
Being, or
Being-in-becoming, or
Doing
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Being = a spontaneous expression of personality,
allowing expression for individuality as a human
being for what people are, rather than for what
they can accomplish.
being-in-becoming – concern for the person as a
human being & what that person is becoming as a
person
Doing = emphasizes accomplishment,& how well
can individual perform.
Cultural factors may influence the types of activity
orientation (focus more on accomplishment)
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2. HUMAN NATURE ORIENTATION

Focus on individual’s qualities of good or evils.

Some belief systems viewed human beings as
evil, mixture of both, or good.

Socialization plays a dominant role in shaping
the qualities.

Ethics & religions as factors of concern

it is understood that human beings make mistake --- but ?…
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3. PEOPLE NATURE ORIENTATION
It deals with the
nature/environment
relationships
between
individuals

Subjugation to nature (have no control
over destiny)

Harmony with nature (interdependent)

Mastery over nature (master & control)
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4.TIME ORIENTATION
 Reflects preferences for past, present, or future time
orientation
 Influenced by culture & religion

Chinese, > past orientation, ancestors
respected, strong family traditions

The American: future oriented?
are
 ALL elements of time are important;
 Generally, educated people are future oriented &
place high value on change as long as it does not
threaten existing order
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5. RELATIONAL ORIENTATION
 Manners of relating with others.
 3 manners:
1.
Linear preference
2.
Collateral preference
3.
Individualist preference
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1.Linear preference
Based on behavioural similarities while permitting some differences within
fixed customs.
Group goals & traditions are important …. continuity through traditions &
family lines.
When problems arises: the oldest (male) member take charge
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2. Collateral preference
 Emphasizes on problem solving
 Individual is considered to be part of a social order
 The goals of extended family including siblings,
cousins are primary - “for the good of the group”
 When problems arises: the family as a group and
extended family are involved in achieving a
common solution.
 A leader – qualified by expertise, not age or
tradition
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3. Individualist preference
 Emphasizes problem solving ability of an individual, yet the individual still
has responsibility to the total society
 The individual’s place & responsibilities are structured interdependently of
collateral groups.
 Use spacing in relationship to the other groups to develop individualistic
orientation
 US people… > individualistic?
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FUNCTIONS OF VALUES


Provide an orientation & set a framework for
people to guide actions & behaviour
3 main fucntions:
1.
•
•
•
Standards of conduct
Helps us to take positions on social, religious &
political issues
Provides standards for comparisons – as guides, to
praise, to judge, to behave, to choose, etc..
Implies a pattern of consistent behaviour
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2. Decision making & conflict resolution
Decisions are made by processing inputs from
environment using information received through
perceptions in which are influenced by value
orientations, conflicts too are resolved based on
values


Can be difficult due to our perceptions of the
situation, the meaning seen through our values &
emotional factors
Holistic view helps in understanding situations from
various perspective.. Helps to resolve conflict
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3. Motivation
• Values have a strong motivational components
• Instrumental values are immediate values that
facilitate reaching goals
• Terminals values are the greater goals beyond
the immediate goals
• Values motivate through their influence which
leads to decision that help people gain self
respect / esteem; guide in making adjustments &
help in developing personal growth
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PATTERNS OF VALUES

•
•
•
Values are embedded by the family system within a
specific culture, in an historical time period.
Social influences are present for all families
Values guide the extent to which outside preferences
from the society will influence family… Diversity,
globalization
Value patterns are related to specific time &
situations … I.e > self awareness vs actions out of
wish for other’s approval
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PROCESS OF VALUING





Values exist on a personal, family or cultural levels; we
develop values to guide our decision making at each level
How do we acquire a value orientation?
Children acquires values primarily within the family system
(trust; aproval, praise & rewards)
Cultural values are transmitted primarily within the family
Value transmission process operates through 3 mechanisms:
reinforcement, modelling & adoption
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1. Reinforcement
A child is rewarded for behaviour that reflects
desired values; punished if otherwise
2. Modelling
Children learn values through modelling from their
significant others esp parents (what they do is
modelled more that what they say)
3. Adoption
values are absorbed & adopted; people are not
passive receivers.. Internalized values, become
personal standards, they grow from experiences..
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3 approaches of acquiring values:
Traditional - Authoritarian Approach
1.
2.
3.
4.
Based in absolute values that have meaning apart from &
external to people
People are responsible to learn these values & live
accordingly
They are part of social traditions; acceptance of the
authority & leaders is critical
Everyone knows what is right & wrong; socialization is
based on indoctrination, fear, punishment, rewards, praise,
blames.
5.
People are passive reactors; must accept & comply
6.
Relates with fundamentalistic thinking
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The Absolute Relativity Approach
1.

2.
Emphasizes that all values are relative, no absolute ethical
principles or moral values.
People are considered as supreme or central; must assert
themselves, & construct own reality
The Organismic-structural-developmental approach
1.
2.
3.
4.
Based on different view of people, the environment & the
relationships between them
Human being as a functional whole (organized, integrated,
systematic)
Rejects the idea that people are being controlled by
external sources
> related with ecological thinking & decision making
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CLARIFYING VALUES




Value system exists through 3 processes: choosing,
appreciating & acting on it
Choosing involves judging, evaluating freely over a
few alternatives & the consequences of the choice
Appreciating involves feeling of satisfaction with
one’s choice and acknowledging
Acting or doing involves using/employing the values
in all aspects of life - consistently
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•
•
One’s values may change depending upon
changes that occur in one’s life
Traditional values are challenged especially
in the post industrial era
•
I.e = “mind your own business” vs. “caring for
one another”
??? What else?
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PARADIGM SHIFT



Refers to restructuring basic values on the way how
we perceive the world
Social paradigm comprises a group of values, beliefs
& experiences that are shared by the majority of the
people in the society
Social paradigm may change across time; progress in
a “slow” manner (not abruptly)
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OLD VALUES
NEW VALUES
Lack of self appreciation ethic
Achievement ethic
Higher life status
Better quality of life
Traditional gender roles
Vague gender roles
Success according to cultural
definitions
Success according to own definitons
Traditional family life
Alternative family life
Belief in industries, institution
Belief in oneself
Live to work
Work to live
Worshipping heroes
Admiring ideas
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Old Values
New Values
Expansionism
Pluralism
Patriotism
Less nationalistic
Unparallel growth
High awareness of boundary
Industrial Growth
Development of information
& Services
Technology acceptance
Technology orientation
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UNIVERSAL VALUES
There are universal values across race & culture

LOVE & CARE
- Bases of moral behaviour are harmony, love &
care, helping.
- “Ihsan” is a concept to explain the values
- With love & “ihsan”, human beings can help each
other

TRUTHFULNESSJ

USTICE

FREEDOM
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VALUE CLASSIFICATION

Paolucci (1977) classifed values into 3
categories:
1.
personal values
2.
moral values
3.
social values
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1. PERSONAL VALUES
Personal values = “character”
•
The manner in which individual copes with
everyday living by applying one’s beliefs and values
•
Expressed through behaviours.
•
self-discipline, self-motivation, punctuality,
orderliness, self-evaluation of one’s efforts,
decisiveness & goal orientation
•
Unique for each individual; - parts of personality
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2. MORAL VALUES
•
•
•
•
•
Give a sense of right and wrong
Concerned with good & right behaviour
Related with the responsibility to live in ways
that protect the freedom & rights of others
Reflect one’s concepts of moral decency
Shown in honesty, dependability, tolerance,
peace of mind, integrity, a sense of fair play,
concern for long range benefits & consistency
between ideals & actions
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3. SOCIAL VALUES
Shown in relationships with others
support, cooperation, recognition,
independence, justice, benevolence,
equity, respect for law, acceptance of
majority rule, sense of interdependence,
recognition of the worth & dignity of every
human being
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VALUE ORIENTATION

•
Ways/style in which beliefs and values are
assimilated from life experiences forming
pattern(s).
Kluckholm (1951) introduced 5 types of value
orientations
1.
Activity orientation
2.
Human nature orientation
3.
People nature orientation
4.
Time orientation
5.
Relational orientation
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I. ACTIVITY ORIENTATION
 It answers Q about the nature of human behaviour
 The answers often related to cultural preferences, may be
either:
Being, or
Being-in-becoming, or
Doing
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Being = a spontaneous expression of personality,
allowing expression for individuality as a human
being for what people are, rather than for what
they can accomplish.
being-in-becoming – concern for the person as a
human being & what that person is becoming as a
person
Doing = emphasizes accomplishment,& how well
can individual perform.
Cultural factors may influence the types of activity
orientation (focus more on accomplishment)
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2. HUMAN NATURE ORIENTATION

Focus on individual’s qualities of good or evils.

Some belief systems viewed human beings as
evil, mixture of both, or good.

Socialization plays a dominant role in shaping
the qualities.

Ethics & religions as factors of concern

it is understood that human beings make mistake --- but ?…
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3. PEOPLE NATURE ORIENTATION
It deals with the
nature/environment
relationships
between
individuals

Subjugation to nature (have no control
over destiny)

Harmony with nature (interdependent)

Mastery over nature (master & control)
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4.TIME ORIENTATION
 Reflects preferences for past, present, or future time
orientation
 Influenced by culture & religion

Chinese, > past orientation, ancestors
respected, strong family traditions

The American: future oriented?
are
 ALL elements of time are important;
 Generally, educated people are future oriented &
place high value on change as long as it does not
threaten existing order
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5. RELATIONAL ORIENTATION
 Manners of relating with others.
 3 manners:
1. Linear preference
2. Collateral preference
3. Individualist preference
1.Linear preference
Based on behavioural similarities while permitting some differences
within fixed customs.
Group goals & traditions are important …. continuity through
traditions & family lines.
When problems arises: the oldest (male) member take charge
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2. Collateral preference
 Emphasizes on problem solving
 Individual is considered to be part of a social order
 The goals of extended family including siblings,
cousins are primary - “for the good of the group”
 When problems arises: the family as a group and
extended family are involved in achieving a
common solution.
 A leader – qualified by expertise, not age or
tradition
FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY
146
3. Individualist preference
 Emphasizes problem solving ability of an individual,
yet the individual still has responsibility to the total
society
 The individual’s place & responsibilities are
structured interdependently of collateral groups.
 Use spacing in relationship to the other groups to
develop individualistic orientation
 US people… > individualistic?
FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY
147
FUNCTIONS OF VALUES


Provide an orientation & set a framework for
people to guide actions & behaviour
3 main fucntions:
1.
•
•
•
Standards of conduct
Helps us to take positions on social, religious &
political issues
Provides standards for comparisons – as guides, to
praise, to judge, to behave, to choose, etc..
Implies a pattern of consistent behaviour
FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY
148
2. Decision making & conflict resolution
Decisions are made by processing inputs from
environment using information received through
perceptions in which are influenced by value
orientations, conflicts too are resolved based on
values


Can be difficult due to our perceptions of the
situation, the meaning seen through our values &
emotional factors
Holistic view helps in understanding situations from
various perspective.. Helps to resolve conflict
FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY
149
3. Motivation
• Values have a strong motivational components
• Instrumental values are immediate values that
facilitate reaching goals
• Terminals values are the greater goals beyond
the immediate goals
• Values motivate through their influence which
leads to decision that help people gain self
respect / esteem; guide in making adjustments &
help in developing personal growth
FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY
150