BORN IN BLOOD AND FIRE
Chapter One
The encounter between Indigenous Americans, Europeans, and Africans was shaped by the
religious, geographical, and cultural histories of each. These factors defined patterns of conquest
and colonization, setting the course of Latin American history and changing the world forever.
I.
Patterns of Indigenous Life
1.
Geography and environment prompted Indigenous Americans to adopt different
forms of social organization
1.
Nonsedentary peoples
1.
Mobile communities
2.
Hunters and gatherers
3.
Relatively simple social organization
4.
Examples include
1.
Chichimecas of northern Mexico
2.
Pampas of Argentine grasslands
2.
Semisedentary peoples
1.
Often lived in forests
2.
Relied on some agriculture as well as hunting
3.
Built villages, but moved frequently
4.
Employed “shifting cultivation” agriculture to take advantage of
thin forest soil
5.
Examples include Tupí people of Brazil
3.
Fully sedentary
1.
Permanent settlements
2.
Often on high plateaus, rather than forests or grasslands
3.
Stability allowed for complex societies
4.
Employed irrigation to sustain agricultural base
5.
Sometimes developed into city-states or empires
6.
Highly stratified societies
7.
Examples
1.
Aztec empire
2.
Maya empire
3.
Inca empire
2.
Empires of the Americas
1.
Aztec empire
1.
Aztec refers to the empire, not the people
2.
In modern-day Mexico
3.
Ruled by the Mexica people
4.
Nahuatl-speaking
5.
Capital at Tenochtitlan more populous than Spanish or Portuguese
capitals
2.
Inca empire
1.
Located in the Andes of South America
II.
III.
2.
Inca refers to the emperor and the empire, rather than the people
3.
Capital at Cuzco – “the navel of the universe”
4.
Quechua speakers
3.
Maya empire
1.
In modern-day Central America
2.
More decentralized than Aztec or Inca – composed of city-states
3.
Highly advanced in art, architecture, and astronomy
4.
Empire declined well before arrival of Europeans
3.
On the eve of encounter, most of Latin America was inhabited by nonsedentary or
semisedentary peoples
Origins of a Crusading Mentality
1.
The Iberians who ultimately colonized the Americas were guided by a history of
conquest and crusade long before they crossed the Atlantic
1.
The Iberian peninsula is made up of Spain and Portugal
2.
The Moors: In the year 711, north African Muslims, called Moors, seized
much of the peninsula from its former Christian rulers
1.
The Moors brought scientific, mathematic, agricultural, and other
advancements to Iberia
2.
Moors ruled Iberia for more than 800 years
3.
“Re-conquest” of Iberia
1.
Over hundreds of years, Christian kingdoms pushed back into
Iberia, taking over territories and subjugating and converting
populations – actions that would be repeated in the Americas
2.
The kingdom of Castile was the most important leader of the reconquest
3.
The conquest of Portugal was completed in the 13th century
4.
In Spain, the Moorish kingdom of Granada fell in 1492,
completing the conquest of Iberia
2.
Religious foundations of overseas exploration
1.
The defeat of the Moors had solidified a crusading mentality
2.
Queen Isabel was a Catholic monarch, committed to spreading
Catholicism
3.
Catholic monarchies purged non-Catholics, forcing Jews and Muslims to
convert or emigrate from Iberia
4.
Converted Jews and Muslims were still subject to persecution and
discrimination
5.
Catholics and Protestants fought throughout Europe
3.
Early exploration
1.
Portuguese begin exploration in West Africa after completion of their
reconquest in the 13th century, returning with gold and slaves
2.
Isabella bankrolls the Columbus expedition which seeks trade routes and
Catholic influence in Asia
The Brazilian Counterexample
1.
The first Portuguese fleet made landfall in Brazil in 1500
1.
Led by Pedro Alavares Cabral, the expedition was destined for India
2.
IV.
Cabral landed in Brazil on his return voyage after sailing around the
southern tip of Africa
3.
Named Brazil “the Island of the True Cross,” without knowing it was a
new continent
2.
Portuguese did not initially see Brazil as an important find
1.
Trade routes in Asia and Africa were already very profitable
2.
Access to spices, silk, gold, and silver in Asia occupied their attention
3.
Initial forays into Brazil
1.
Portuguese sailors compared it to the Garden of Eden
2.
Most appealing resource found was a red dye made from the “brazilwood”
tree
3.
The appeal of spreading Christianity to indigenous Brazilians justified
conquest
4.
Small-scale trade began between Portuguese and Tupí
5.
Some Portuguese “went native,” joining indigenous communities
4.
Conquest of Brazil
1.
The arrival of French ships to Brazil convinced Portuguese king to assert a
claim to the territory
2.
Portuguese hoped to plant sugarcane
1.
the only crop with major export potential
2.
required large amount of land and labor to cultivate
3.
The Portuguese resorted to armed invasion to secure the land and labor of
the Tupí
1.
The terrain muted Portuguese advantages, such as horses
2.
The Tupí used the terrain to attack and flee into the forest, as well
as to escape once captured
3.
Conquest of land and people destroyed Tupí society
4.
Most successful sugar plantations were those that minimized
conflict with indigenous people
4.
Indigenous rebellions threatened to destroy settlements by the mid 1540s
5.
Portuguese king sought to secure settlements by building a capital city,
Salvador (also known as Bahía) and appointing a royal governor
5.
Demographic catastrophe
1.
Conquest and enslavement wiped out the Tupinambá people (a sub-group
of Tupí)
2.
Diseases ravaged indigenous communities, because they had no
immunities to European diseases
3.
Jesuits tried to defend indigenous people from enslavement, but were
unable to stop disease
Africa and the Slave Trade
1.
The collapse of indigenous populations in the Americas created a need for a new
labor source
2.
Europeans began importing enslaved Africans
1.
Europeans and Africans had long-standing connections
1.
Africans had exposure to European diseases
2.
V.
Many Africans had experience in agriculture and with livestock
that indigenous Americans lacked
3.
Many Africans were experienced ironworkers
2.
Slavery was a part of African societies
1.
As in Iberia and the Americas, slaves were often war captives
2.
Slavery in Africa was not permanent or inherited, so the
descendents of slaves were integrated back into free society
3.
The trade in African slaves took off after the 15th-century arrival of
the Portuguese
3.
Portuguese had traded along the western coast of Africa
1.
African slave traders exchanged slaves for Portuguese goods
2.
The profitability of slaves captured in war created an impetus for
more wars between African kingdoms
3.
Portuguese used converting slaves to Christianity as a justification
for enslavement
4.
Portuguese dominated the slave trade for more than a century
5.
More than a million people likely died in passage to the Americas
6.
15–20 percent of captives died on the voyage
7.
Olaudah Equiano provides one of the few accounts of the middle
passage
3.
West Africa was initially the most affected by the slave trade
1.
Area between modern Senegal to Nigeria
2.
Along the Niger river, kingdoms became famous for their gold
3.
This wealth brought traders from Europe and the Middle East
4.
The “gold coast” first brought Portuguese to Africa; eventually joined by
British, French, and Dutch
5.
Portuguese dominated Angola and Mozambique, actively colonizing that
territory
The Fall of the Aztec and Inca Empires
1.
Cortés and the Aztec empire
1.
The Spanish had subjugated the Caribbean before moving on to Mexico
2.
Spanish invaders were not soldiers, but private adventurers and fortune
seekers
3.
Hernán Cortés had been interacting with indigenous Americans for fifteen
years before encountering the Aztec empire
4.
The Aztec empire had greater forces, but the Spanish had strategic
advantages
1.
Moctezuma, the Aztec emperor, did not know who the Spanish
were or what threat they posed
2.
Cortés, on the other hand, could plan for conquest
3.
Moctezuma did not believe that Cortés was the returning god
Quetzalcoatl, but may have believed the Spaniards to be
supernatural
4.
The Spanish brought many things the Mexica had never seen
1.
Horses
2.
Attack dogs
VI.
3.
Tall ships
4.
Cannons
5.
Steel blades
6.
Body armor
5.
Moctezuma, not realizing the Spaniards’ hostile intent, invited
them into Tenochtitlan
6.
Spanish took Moctezuma hostage
7.
Indigenous allies fought with Cortés, evening their numbers
8.
Disease ravaged the Aztec empire
5.
Tenochtitlan fell in 1521, followed by the rest of the empire
2.
The conquest of the Inca Empire
1.
Francisco Pizarro was a seasoned conquistador by the time he encountered
the Inca empire
2.
Took the Inca ruler Atahualpa hostage in 1532
3.
Horses and steel gave the Spanish much greater lethality than Inca
warriors
4.
Pizarro invited Inca nobles to a meeting and massacred them, depriving
the empire of leadership
3.
Indigenous allies made these conquests possible
1.
Cortés found willing allies against the Aztec empire
1.
Aztec tribute requirements and taxes alienated other city-states
2.
Aztec religious ceremonies often used other people from other
city-states as sacrifices
3.
Aztec expansion had killed many subjected peoples
2.
Pizarro also took advantage of anti-Inca resentments
1.
Inca had broken up rival city-states, resettling their populations
2.
Pizarro arrived in the midst of a power struggle after the recent
death of an emperor and his successor
The Birth of Spanish America
1.
Encomiena system rewarded Spanish conquerors with people to work their land
1.
Spaniards had the responsibility to Christianize them
2.
Based on a system used during the conquest of the Moors
3.
Farmers who paid tribute to Aztec or Inca now paid to the Spanish
4.
Spanish established encomiendas out of existing communities with their
own indigenous nobles, called caciques
2.
Joining of Spanish and Indigenous societies: Mexico becomes “New Spain”
1.
Importance of women
1.
Lack of Spanish women led to intermarriage between Spanish men
and indigenous women
1.
Malinche
1.
(i) An indigenous woman, actually named Malintzin
2.
(ii) One of the female slaves given to Cortés as he
traveled Mexico
3.
(iii) Integral in the capture of Moctezuma
4.
(iv) Married one of Cortés’s men
2.
Techichpotzín
1.
2.
3.
2.
3.
(i) Daughter of Moctezuma
(ii) Became Isabel Moctezuma
(iii) Her wealth allowed her to attract several
Spanish and indigenous husbands
2.
Children of Spanish-indigenous union were known as “mestizo”
1.
Usually inherited little or nothing from their fathers
2.
Faced discrimination
3.
Spanish women arrived in greater numbers, mostly after fighting
was complete, but there were exceptions
1.
Isabel de Guevara
1.
(i) Helped conquer Argentina and Paraguay in the
1530s–40s
2.
(ii) Wrote a letter to the Spanish crown, detailing
the importance of women in that expedition
2.
Inés Suárez
1.
(i) Arrived in America in 1537 in search of her
husband, but found he was dead
2.
(ii) Became the mistress of the conqueror of Chile
3.
(iii) Became legendary for her actions in repelling
an indigenous attack
Religious conversions
1.
Indigenous Americans were accustomed to accepting the religion
of their rulers
2.
Spanish erected churches on sites already holy to indigenous
Americans
3.
Spanish often converted indigenous people in mass ceremonies,
without instruction
Transitions to Spanish rule
1.
The fully sedentary peoples of Mexico survived conquest far better
than did the Tupí
2.
Former imperial subjects nevertheless suffered
1.
Spanish often demanded greater tribute than from Aztecs or
Inca
2.
The mita labor draft in the Andes required more arduous
labor under the Spanish
Chapter 2
Colonial Crucible
The colonization of the Americas was more a process than an outcome. The three centuries that
marked Iberian control of Latin America were characterized by more than the rule of outsiders;
rather, colonization was a social, cultural, and psychological process whose outcomes were
shaped by the adaptations of the colonized as much as by the efforts of the colonizers.
I.
Colonial Economics
1.
Mining for precious metals shaped colonial economics and organization
1.
Gold
1.
The first precious metal to attract the attention of Europeans
2.
Early in the colonial process, a Caribbean gold rush contributed to the
destruction of the Arawak population
2.
Silver
1.
Became most important precious metal in the Spanish colonies
2.
Mines opened in 1540s
1.
Zacatecas (Mexico)
1.
(i) Mine built in an area without sedentary indigenous
population
2.
(ii) Attracted indigenous migrants from central Mexico
for labor
2.
Potosí (Peru)
1.
(i) Deep shaft mines built on mountain plateaus
2.
(ii) Incorporated indigenous smelting techniques
3.
(iii) Became the most populous city in America in the
1600s
4.
(iv) The need for supplies created a secondary economy
around the mines
3.
Mining zones created a space for the mingling of different indigenous
and European peoples
3.
Economic priorities of the Spanish crown shaped political organization
1.
The “royal fifth” – a 20 percent tax on mining — was the major source
of revenue
2.
Colonial governments organized to secure tax
1.
Called “viceroyalties”
1.
(i) Ruled by a viceroy sent from Spain
2.
(ii) Each had a high court and an archbishop
2.
“New Spain”
1.
(i) Modern Mexico, Central America and Caribbean
2.
(ii) Viceregal capital at Mexico City
3.
“Peru”
1.
(i) Includes much of South America
2.
(ii) Viceregal capital at Lima
4.
“New Grenada”
1.
(i) Modern Colombia
2.
(ii) Third viceroyalty in 1717
3.
(iii) Created to support gold mining
5.
“Rio de la Plata”
1.
(i) Modern Argentina
2.
(ii) 1776
3.
(iii) Created to stop untaxed exports of silver through
the region
3.
Peru and Mexico remained center of Spanish colonization
4.
Sugar became the central economic activity of Brazil
1.
Rich soil made Northeast Brazil the focus of colonial activity
1.
Pernambuco and the Bay of All Saints were centers
2.
II.
Taxes on sugar were major source of income to Portuguese
crown
2.
Sugar shapes society
1.
Sugar cane had to be milled and boiled down for export
2.
“Mill Lords”
1.
Planters wealthy enough to build sugar mills become
“Mill Lords” or “senhores de engenho”
2.
Stood at the center of society and economy
3.
Each owned hundreds of slaves
4.
Whole regions of growers relied on the mill for
processing
3.
Plantations undercut the growth of urban centers
3.
Brazil remained less populous and profitable than Spanish America
1.
Outside of Northeast, Brazil was sparsely settled
1.
Amazonian northwest inhabited mostly by
semisedentary indigenous tribes
2.
Other interior regions were inaccessible except by
canoe routes
3.
Cattle ranching kept the “sertão” undeveloped and poor
2.
Portugal focused on profitable outposts in Africa and Asia
3.
More loosely governed by viceroys
A Power Called Hegemony
1.
Hegemonic power defined
1.
Does not rely on force, but on some consent by those governed
2.
A form of power that is resilient, powerful, and often damaging to those at the
bottom
3.
Convinces people to accept their inferior place
2.
Example: Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz
1.
Hoped to attend the University of Mexico
2.
She was well qualified
1.
Began reading at age 3
2.
Taught herself Latin
3.
At 17, she stumped a jury of University professors
4.
Renowned for her poetry
3.
Women in New Spain had limited options
1.
To marry
2.
To join a convent
4.
Sor Juana joined the convent because it offered some measure of independence
5.
Sor Juana became a prominent intellectual
1.
Studied mathematics
2.
Composed music
3.
Wrote controversial poetry
4.
Challenged prominent church scholars
6.
Church fathers believed it unnatural for a woman to engage in such practices
7.
Sor Juana consented, selling all of her books and instruments
8.
Declared herself “the worst of women”
3.
Hegemonic forces
1.
Religion offers a clear example of hegemony at work
1.
2.
3.
4.
III.
The Catholic church was a means of European control
1.
The Church’s leaders were all of European descent
2.
The “divine right” of the church made it heretical to question its
leaders
2. The Church was omnipresent in colonial life
1.
The Church controlled educational institutions
2.
Church calendars structured daily life
3.
Church sacraments marked important life events
4.
Towns and cities were named for saints, and each had a patron
saint
3. Because the Church was everywhere, and its teachings divinely
inspired, converts had no ability to challenge it, accepting an inferior
position
Patriarchy
1.
Fathers ruled at all levels of colonial society
1.
Church hierarchy was exclusively male
2.
Iberian law based on patriarchy
2.
Iberian concepts of honor shaped the daily lives of men and women
1.
For men, honor dictated:
1.
Defending the virginity of daughters
2.
Sexual exclusivity of wives
3.
Both would be defended with bloodshed
2.
2. For women, honor dictated avoiding extramarital contact with men
1.
Independent-minded women were targeted
2.
Women often resisted
1.
(i) Magic provided a way to challenge this control
2.
(ii) Most challenges to men demanded that they live up
to the roles demanded by honor
3.
(iii) Economics shaped opportunities for women
1.
(1) Property was a prerequisite for honor
2.
(2) Poor women struggled to achieve honor
3.
(3) Honor was virtually impossible for enslaved
women
4.
(4) Indigenous women were more able to live
outside of this system
A Process Called Transculturation
1.
New Latin American cultures emerged from the interaction of European, African, and
indigenous peoples
1.
Cultural influence followed power relations
1.
Those on top of the hierarchy dictated the structures of society
2.
Those below were able to make more subtle contributions
2.
Religion and transculturation
1.
The Church had great power in establishing the structures of religion
2.
Resistance occurred in the spiritual sphere
1.
Slaves preserved African religious traditions by practicing them
under the guise of Catholic religion
2.
Indigenous artists brought their own sacred imagery into
representations of Catholic iconography
3.
IV.
Virgin of Guadalupe
1.
(i) Patron saint of Mexico
2.
(ii) Allegedly appeared on a sacred Aztec sight
3.
(iii) Was often depicted with dark skin
4.
(iv) Frequently referred to by her Nahuatl name,
Tonantzin
4.
African practices influenced Catholicism in Brazil and Caribbean
2.
Cities were an important site of transculturation
1.
Many indigenous people migrated to urban areas
2.
Urban slaves had greater freedom than slaves on plantations
1.
Able to locate and associate with others from the same parts of Africa
2.
Able to join free black people in lay Catholic brotherhoods
3.
Slaves and free blacks worked as artisans, often alongside poor whites
3.
Rural areas had different patterns of transculturation
1.
Plantation slaves were highly restricted and isolated
2.
Rural indigenous people lived more separately
3.
Whites were also more isolated
1.
Forced to mingle and interact with other groups
2.
Accelerated the influence of African and indigenous culture
3.
Haciendas, or large estates, relied on indigenous workforces
4.
Transculturation was a blessing and a curse for subjugated groups
1.
Virgin of Guadalupe
1.
Nahuatl speakers claimed her as their icon, influencing the practice of
Catholicism to their benefit
2.
Acceptance of the Virgin also marked consent to Catholic religion and
Iberian domination
2.
Garcilaso and Guaman Poma
1.
Spokesmen for native people of Peru
2.
Both wrote on the indigenous perspective of colonization
3.
Strongly endorsed Christianity and Spanish rule
5.
Transculturation and hegemony often went hand-in-hand
The Fringes of Colonization
1.
Fringes lay outside the economic centers of colonies
1.
More sparsely populated
2.
Less economic stratification
3.
More subsistence living
4.
Those on the bottom of the hierarchy became more important
1.
Mixed race people gained greater respect
2.
Slaves were better treated because replacements were more difficult to
bring in
2.
Paraguay case study
1.
Colonization characterized by large missions for conversion of indigenous
people
2.
Remote and landlocked
3.
Became permeated by Guaraní influence
1.
Guaraní became primary language of social interaction
2.
Racial mixing made Paraguay notably mestizo
3.
Chief export – yerba maté – was indigenous
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Rio de la Plata – “River of Silver”
1.
Less isolated than Paraguay
1.
Ports of Montevideo and Buenos Aires
2.
Silver from Potosí traveled through
3.
Capital at Buenos Aires
2.
Cattle ranching economy
3.
Ongoing raids by indigenous societies
4.
Abundance
1.
Even slaves were able to eat as much beef as they wanted
2.
Horses were easily available
Chile
1.
Isolated despite huge coastline
1.
Subordinate to viceroyalty of Peru
2.
No direct communication with Crown
2.
Chile could not offer settlers many indigenous servants
1.
Araucanos had resisted Inca conquest
2.
Had fought Spanish for centuries
3.
Grew wheat to supply Peruvian mines
Elsewhere on the fringe
1.
Spanish fringe areas were often cattle frontiers
1.
Gauchos — cowboys of the Rio de la Plata
2.
Gausos — Chilean cowboys
3.
Vaqueros — Mexican cowboys
2.
Caribbean basement remained fringe area
1.
Other colonial powers challenged Spanish authority
1.
Hispaniola and Jamaica
2.
Belize became English colony in Central America
2.
2. Cuba was cattle country until 1700s
3.
New Granada was a complex mix
1.
Dense populations of fully sedentary indigenous people
2.
No silver mines
3.
Fringe areas included rainforests and cattle frontier
4.
Fell between fringe and core in economic terms
Fringe economic boom
1.
Rio de la Plata found European markets for cattle hides
2.
Cuba and Venezuela found plantation crops
1.
Cuba — sugar and coffee
2.
Venezuela — cacao
3.
Caribbean plantations produced huge influx of slaves
Brazilian fringe
1.
Missions were chief representatives of Iberian control
2.
Cattle ranching
3.
São Paulo
1.
Backwater in the 1600s
2.
Founded by Jesuit missionaries
3.
Relied on indigenous, not African labor
4.
Population was mestizo, in contrast to the black and white Brazilian
coast
4.
V.
Bandeirantes
1.
Chased fugitive slaves
2.
Roamed Brazilian interior
3.
Often attacked missions
4.
Conversed in Tupí language
5.
Extended influence of Portuguese crown in Brazil
6.
Destroyed Palmares
1.
A quilombo — settlement of fugitive slaves – in Brazil
2.
Thrived for much of the 1600s
3.
Zumbi – warrior king
1.
(i) Fought Bandeirantes
2.
(ii) Beloved Afro-Brazilian icon
7.
Discovered gold in the backlands in late 1600s
1.
Prompted wave of settlers to interior
2.
Gold fields called Minas Gerais, “general mines”
3.
Bandeirantes pushed aside by slave owners
5.
Gold boom
1.
Influx of slaves to the mines
2.
Crown begins to collect “the royal fifth”
3.
Cities built near mines
4.
Vila Rico de Ouro Preto
1.
First large inland settlement
2.
Capital of Minas Gerais
5.
5. Financed art of Aleijadinho
6.
Aided the economic integration of Brazil
1.
New settlements
2.
Capital changed to Rio de Janeiro
Late Colonial Transformations
1.
1750s – Iberian crowns seek to tighten control
1.
Known as Bourbon or Pombaline reforms
1.
Bourbon dynasty in Spain
2.
Marquis de Pombal in Portugal
2.
Effort to rationalize and modernize overseas government
1.
Improve profitability
2.
Subservience to the crown
3.
Reforms
1.
Raised taxes
2.
Improved administration to collect taxes
3.
State-controlled monopolies oversee trade and production
4.
Limited production of products that Europe produced
1.
Wine
2.
Cloth
3.
Meant to insure continued importation of European goods
5.
5. Loosened shipping restrictions but asserted trade exclusivity
2.
Reaction in the Americas
1.
Taxes fell on poorest who were unable to pay
2.
Monopolies increased prices
3.
Unemployment
4.
5.
VI.
Widespread economic revolts
Native-born Spanish-Americans and Portuguese-Americans had most at stake
1.
European-born received preferential treatment by colonial
administrators
2.
Expulsion of Jesuit order
3.
Rising numbers of mestizos threatened from below
3.
Racial mixing
1.
Social and professional interaction
2.
Intermarriage and consensual partnerships common among lower class
1.
Xica da Silva
1.
African mother, Portuguese father
2.
Mistress of royal diamond contractor
3.
Provided her with honor and signs of upper class
4.
Looked down on some Europeans, challenging caste system
4.
Caste system
1.
Fixed categories corresponding to race
2.
Categories accounted for, and ranked, racial mixtures
1.
European
2.
African
3.
European-African
4.
European father–indigenous mother
5.
Indigenous-African
6.
Indigenous
3.
Intermarriage between these groups created new categories
4.
Caste paintings commissioned to illustrate categories
5.
Spanish Crown began selling “gracias al sacar”
1.
Allowed low-caste people to buy official whiteness
2.
Raised revenue
3.
Angered whites
4.
Moving up into whiteness endorsed logic of caste system
Countercurrents: Colonial Rebellions
1.
Aftershocks of conquest
1.
Rebellion of Gonzalo Pizarro
1.
Carried out by conquistadors of Peru
2.
Reaction to new laws limiting encomiendas
3.
Killed viceroy
4.
Pizarro beheaded for treason
2.
Indigenous revolts, 1500–1800
1.
Taki Onqoy, Andes, 1560, marked by religious revival among indigenous
2.
1680 Pueblo rebellion in Mexico expelled Spanish from land for a
decade
3.
1760 Yucatec Maya revolt
2.
Rebellions against Bourbon Reforms
1.
Mostly economic rebellions
1.
1749 Venezuelan Cacao growers rebel against monopoly
2.
Uprising in Quito, Ecuador 1765–56
3.
Comunero uprising in Colombia against taxes and monopolies
2.
Uprisings often created short-lived cross-caste alliances
3.
4.
5.
3.
Rebellions often claimed loyalty to the king, against bad government
Quilombos and Palenques
1.
Palmares in Brazil
2.
Called palenques in Caribbean
French-style conspiracies in Brazil – 1789 and 1798
1.
Republican ideas from French and U.S. revolutions inspire some Brazilians
2.
Conspiracy in Ouro Preto
1.
Betrayed before it could begin
2.
Army officer Tiradentes becomes patriotic martyr
3.
Tailors’ Rebellion in Bahia
1.
Centered among tailors in Bahia
2.
Majority were black and mulatto
Rebellion of Tupac Amaru II, 1780–83
1.
Mestizo Tupac Amaru II claimed Inca royal descent
2.
Used name of Tupac Amaru, Inca resistance leader
3.
Rebellion was declared “anti-Peninsular,” the name for Spanish-born
4.
Called for alliance between American-born whites, mestizos, and indigenous
5.
Rebellion became primarily indigenous
6.
Set off revolt of Tupac Catari
7.
Killed perhaps 100,000
8.
Affected behavior of Peru’s elite in coming independence wars
Chapter 3
Independence
The independence of Latin America was sudden and unexpected, and the course of the fighting
shaped the societies that would emerge as independent nations.
I.
Revolution and War in Europe
1.
The incompetent rule of Carlos IV in Spain
1.
Shirked duties of governance
2.
Allowed a hated minister to rule
3.
Costly wars bankrupted the government
1.
Resulted in higher taxes
2.
Sale of high offices
3.
Incompetents in power
4.
Government foreclosure of long-term loans
4.
War with England 1796
1.
Wiped out Spanish navy
2.
Crippled Atlantic trade
2.
Portugal remained allied with England
3.
The French Revolution
1.
Challenged monarchy based on divine right
2.
Executed the king and queen
3.
Argued for popular sovereignty
4.
Napoloen set out to “liberate” Europe from monarchs
4.
II.
England
1.
Had made liberal reforms
2.
Had elected legislature along with limited monarchy
3.
Allied with Spain and Portugal against Napoleon
5.
Portugal
1.
1807 — Portuguese refuse to close ports and declare war on England
2.
France invades in response
3.
Prince João and royal court fled to Rio de Janeiro
6.
Spain
1.
Carlos IV and his heir imprisoned by Napoleon
2.
Napoleon places his own brother on throne of Spain
7.
Portuguese Court in Brazil
1.
Maintains Legitimacy of Government
1.
Crown authority had inspired obedience
2.
Royal court now operating within Brazil
3.
Wealthy Europeans flood Rio de Janeiro
2.
Presence of Court favors Brazilian elite
1.
New wealth
2.
Access to the King’s ear
3.
João ends Portuguese trade monopoly, allows Brazil to trade widely
8.
Spanish Crisis
1.
Imprisonment of King creates legitimacy crisis
1.
Spanish government not entirely destroyed
2.
Resistance movements in Spain send representatives to a resistance
committee called the Central Junta
2.
Central Junta
1.
Chosen entirely from within Spain
2.
No representation of Spanish Americans
3.
Spanish Americans reject rule of Junta
1.
Profess loyalty to Fernando VII as legitimate ruler
2.
Rejected the ideas that Americas were colonies
1.
(i)Spain and Americas were co-equal kingdoms of Spain
2.
(ii) Loyal to Fernando, not subservient to Spain
3.
Begin forming local juntas to rule in Fernando’s name
4.
Formed in open meetings of town councils called “cabildo
abierto”
4.
Constitution of Cadiz
1.
1810 — Spanish resistance calls for liberal constitution with
input from Spain and Americas
2.
Would have profoundly altered Spanish empire
3.
Never fully implemented
Spanish-American Rebellions Begin, 1810–15
1.
Who were the rebels?
1.
Creole Patriots
1.
American-born whites
2.
In 1700s, growing resentment toward privilege of Peninsular Spanish
1.
Spanish-born whites were preferred for important posts
2.
Accumulated greater wealth
2.
2.
Non-whites care little for this rivalry at the top
1.
Resentment directed at Creoles
2.
Creoles kept people of mixed-race down
3.
Plenty of reasons to rebel, but not against Peninsulares
Mexican independence
1.
Background to rebellion
1.
Most profitable colony
2.
Peninsulares were only 1 percent of population
3.
Creole resentment ran high
2.
1808 cabildo of Mexico City
1.
Called a representative assembly to rule for Fernando VII
2.
Peninsulares unseated the viceroy to prevent assembly
3.
Creoles became angrier
4.
1910 Creole conspiracy in mining regions sparks rebellion of indigenous
and mestizo peasants
3.
Father Manuel Hidalgo
1.
Nonconformist intellectual priest
1.
Read banned French books
2.
Violated celibacy rules
3.
Feared arrest for role in conspiracy
2.
Addressed a crowd at his church
1.
Declared need to defend Mexico against Peninsular usurpers of
Fernando VII’s authority
2.
Spoke in religious language
3.
Americans vs. Europeans
1.
(i) Peninsulares as descendents of Spanish
conquistadors who stole indigenous peoples’ land
2.
(ii) “Long live the Virgin of Guadalupe, death to the
Spaniards”
3.
Poor, rural people join rebellion
1.
Men, women, children, livestock
2.
Weapons were farming tools
3.
Peninsulares and Creoles killed in large numbers
4.
Hidalgo’s army reached 80,000
5.
Undisciplined and out of control
6.
Army dispersed after a few months
7.
Hidalgo captured, executed
4.
Father José María Morelos
1.
Officer in Hidalgo’s rebellion
2.
Mestizo
3.
More organized and disciplined army
4.
Clear goals
1.
End to slavery
2.
End of caste system
3.
End of tribute paid by indigenous people
4.
All born in the Americans were “Americanos”
5.
Declared Mexican independence 1813
6.
Attracted few Creoles
III.
7.
Morelos captured and executed
5.
Small bands of rebels continued fighting colonial rule
3.
Peru’s slower start
1.
Creoles wary of mobilizing indigenous population due to history of Tupac Amaru
II
2.
Remained relatively quiet as rebellions began elsewhere
4.
“Fringe colonies” of Argentina and Venezuela
1.
Creoles were less cautious
2.
Both countries had many horses and horsemen
3.
Cabildos abiertas in Caracas and Buenos Aires
4.
“Taking off the Mask of Fernando”
1.
Rebellions begin by professing loyalty to Fernando VII
2.
Eventually embrace complete independence
5.
1811 — Venezuelan republic collapsed
1.
Earthquake seems a sign of divine disapproval
2.
Llaneros
1.
Cowboys of the interior
2.
Do not support elite urban Creoles of Caracas
3.
Defend the rule of Fernando VII
6.
Argentina
1.
Greater military advantage
1.
In 1806-07, British incursions into Rio de la Plata
2.
Local militias, not Spanish, defeated British
2.
2. May 1810, Peninsular rule ends in Buenos Aires
3.
Other parts of Rio de la Plata do not follow suit
4.
Buenos Aires fights on its own, sometimes with or against armies from
other provinces
The Patriots’ Winning Strategy: Nativism
1.
Creoles need support from below to win independence
1.
Exploited majority was uninterested in or unaware of Republicanism or liberal
ideas
2.
Creoles had little interest in changing a social hierarchy they dominated
2.
“Nativism”
1.
Idea of an American identity based on birthplace
1.
All born in the Americas were Americanos
2.
Joins classes and races against Spanish
3.
Emotionally appealing, mobilized anti-foreign resentments
4.
“Who should govern? The people! Who are the people? Americanos!”
2.
Few Creole patriot leaders wanted actual equality
1.
Needed to mobilize support
2.
Intended to simply replace Peninsulares at top of hierarchy
3.
Brazilian independence
1.
Having the royal court in Rio de Janeiro kept Brazil relatively stable in 1810s
2.
Discontent begins
1.
Having royal court in Brazil was expensive
2.
Unpopular and costly war with Spanish neighbors to the south
3.
João restricts slave trade
3.
Moves toward independence
1.
IV.
Influx of foreigners
1.
Bring wealth to Brazil
2.
Bring European liberal ideas
2.
2. 1817 — attempted liberal revolution in Pernambuco
1.
Declared republic
2.
Called each other “patriot”
3.
Lasted only a few weeks before it was repressed
4.
Portuguese actions
1.
Portuguese assembly demands João’s return after defeat of Napoleon
2.
João declares Brazil a kingdom, not a colony
3.
Assembly wants Brazil returned to colonial status
4.
João returns to Lisbon in 1821
5.
Leaves Prince Pedro in Rio
5.
Rio control falters
1.
Several provinces create liberal juntas
2.
Send their own representatives to Lisbon
6.
Brazilian Party
1.
1822 — Rio de Janeiro elites form Brazilian party to resist recolonization
2.
Uses nativist rhetoric
1.
“Brazilian” excludes slaves
2.
Accepts Portuguese-born “converts”
3.
Prince Pedro becomes a supporter
7.
Independence
1.
Portuguese assembly demands Pedro return to Lisbon
2.
Pedro publicly declares his refusal to return from palace balcony
3.
Declares Brazilian independence as constitutional monarchy
4.
Calls for representatives to write a constitution
5.
Portuguese army resistance quickly defeated
Patriot Victories in Spanish America
1.
Return of Fernando
1.
Napoleon defeated at Waterloo
2.
Fernando returns to power
3.
Renounces Constitution of Cadiz
4.
Sets out to crush Spanish-American rebellions
5.
Rebels forced to commit to independence
2.
Mexico
1.
Morelos’s armies continued to fight, but unable to defeat Royalists
2.
1820 – Fernando faces revolt
1.
Liberal revolt to reinstate Cadiz constitution
2.
Hurts mystique of the crown
3.
Creole-guerrilla alliance
1.
Creole army under Agustín de Iturbide allies with Vicente Guerrero,
leader of guerrilla movements
2.
Alliance promises
1.
Independence
2.
Constitutional monarchy
3.
Social union
4.
The monarchical solution
1.
2.
3.
V.
Iturbide enters Mexico city
Crowds call for his coronation as Augustín I
Iturbide had weak claim to monarchy
1.
He was Creole
2.
Could not claim divine right
4.
4. Pushed from power after a few years
3.
Armies from Venezuela and Argentina converge on Peru
1.
Simón Bolívar
1.
“The Liberator”
2.
Involved in Venezuelan independence from the start
1.
Had been defeated by royalist llaneros
2.
Won llaneros to his side
1.
(i) Nativist rhetoric
2.
(ii) Physical prowess
3.
(iii) Base in Orinoco plains
3.
1819 — surprised Spanish forces in the Andes
4.
Captured Bógota
5.
Caracas and Quito (1822)
6.
Controlled all of northern South America
2.
José de San Martín
1.
Led combined Argentine-Chilean army
2.
Crossed Andes to surprise Spanish
3.
Captured Chilean capital
4.
Marched north to Lima
1.
Viceroy fled Lima
2.
San Martín declares Peru independent
5.
5. Unable to complete victory in Peru
3.
Meeting in Guayaquil
1.
San Martín and Bolívar meet
2.
Confidential discussions
3.
San Martín returns to Chile
4.
Bolívar prepares final assault on Spanish power
4.
Final battles
1.
Bolívar takes two years to equip force
2.
1824: liberates two more countries
1.
Bolivia takes his name
2.
Battle of Ayacucho
1.
(i) Fought at high altitude
2.
(ii) Captured last Spanish viceroy
3.
3. Only Cuba and Puerto Rico remained Spanish
Unfinished Revolutions
1.
Creoles took control of new republics
1.
Postcolonial – independent, but still shaped by colonialism
2.
Hierarchy did not change except at the top
3.
Patriarchy was unchanged
1.
Patriot women, however, became powerful symbols
1.
Manuela Beltrán
1.
(i) Trampled royal edict
2.
(ii) Colombia’s Comunero rebellion
Juana Azurduy
1.
(i) Bolivian
2.
(ii) Dressed as a man
3.
(iii) Led cavalry charge, capturing enemy flag
4.
(iv) Mestiza who married up
5.
(v) Father killed by peninsular who went unpunished
6.
(vi) Joined a convent but was expelled for rebellion
7.
(vii) Spoke indigenous languages
3.
Policarpa Salavarietta
1.
(i) Message carrier for rebels
2.
(ii) Executed in Bogotá
2.
Leaders become disillusioned
1.
Bolívar believes Spanish Americans unfit for government
2.
Becomes authoritarian
3.
Nativist rhetoric created expectations for social change among lower classes
Countercurrents: The Gaze of Outsiders
1.
Foreign travelers come to Latin America after independence
1.
Missionaries
2.
Business
3.
Scientists
2.
Explosion of foreign companies in Latin America
1.
Sixty British firms in Rio de Janeiro
2.
In 1833, Brazil is Great Britain’s third largest market
3.
Many travelers attracted to Latin America for its exoticism
4.
Many brought a scornful, arrogant attitude
1.
“Vilest place I’ve ever seen” wrote one British diplomat of Rio de la Plata
2.
Criticized Catholicism as superstition
3.
Incapable of self-government
5.
Frances Calderón de la Barca
1.
Scottish woman married to Spanish diplomat in Mexico City
2.
Called Mexico City “one of the noblest-looking cities”
3.
Wrote sympathetically on religion, indigenous peoples
4.
Critiqued lack of education for women
6.
Travelers’ accounts offer subtle problems for historians
1.
Example: view of wet nurses in Brazil
1.
In Brazil, many wet nurses were slaves
2.
Slave wet nurse was a status symbol
3.
Account describes the opulent dress of one wet nurse
4.
Another offers a wet nurse for sale because her child has died
2.
VI.
Chapter 4
Postcolonial Blues
The first governments of Latin America had few resources and many obstacles. The rallying
cries that united anti-colonial armies gave way to post-colonial hierarchies, and economic
stagnation imperiled the idealistic hopes of American patriots.
I.
Liberal Disappointment
1.
Split personality: Liberal ideas meet colonial traditions
1.
Strongly traditional societies
1.
Collective responsibility over individual freedom
2.
Religious orthodoxy over religious freedom
3.
Hierarchical society with exploitative labor system
2.
Promise of legal equality for all races had been precondition of mass support for
independence
1.
Caste classifications removed from census forms and parish records
2.
White leaders still looked at mixed race populations as a problem
2.
Conservative leaders emerge in defense of traditional values
1.
Keep common people in “their place”
2.
Rule by elites
3.
Conservative ideas had appeal to many common people
1.
Church-State conflicts
2.
Church represented reverence for colonial traditions
3.
Liberals wanted freedom of religion and church-state separation
1.
Support of protestant merchants
2.
Educational reformers
4.
4. Conservatives wanted Catholicism to remain official religion
1.
Pious, traditional peasants
2.
Landowners
3.
Winning issue for Conservatives
4.
Liberal-Conservative divide shaped Latin America
5.
Often formed into Liberal Party/Conservative Party conflict
6.
Centerpiece of electoral debates in new republics
3.
Economic devastation
1.
Wars for independence destroyed economies
1.
Mexican and Peruvian silver mines hardest hit
2.
Shafts flooded
3.
Needed injection of capital to recover
2.
Little capital available
1.
Latin America had few banks before 1850
2.
Little interest in investment by foreign banks
3.
Foreign traders controlled international commerce
4.
Wealthy Creoles preferred to invest in land
3.
Lack of transportation infrastructure
1.
Few navigable rivers, high mountains, thick forests
2.
Merchants kept quantities low, margins high
3.
Expanding trade required new infrastructure
1.
Roads
2.
Bridges
3.
Ports
4.
Railroads, eventually
4.
4. Insufficient capital to build
4.
Struggle to create governing institutions
1.
Rebuilding governments was expensive
2.
Armies were overdeveloped
II.
1.
Top-heavy with salaried officers
2.
Difficulty paying created dangerous conflict with military
3.
3. Republican institutions had little legitimacy
4.
Fragile republics
1.
Understaffed governments
2.
Difficult to make people pay taxes
1.
Relied on import/export, high-yield taxes
2.
Borrowed money
3.
Often defaulted
3.
Liberals had no resources to effect the sweeping changes they proposed
4.
Collapse of republics
1.
Military overthrows became common
2.
Presidents often held office for only days
5.
Conservative ascendancy by 1830s
Patronage Politics and Caudillo Leadership
1.
Many politicians viewed government as means of personal enrichment
1.
Control of government jobs, pensions, public works
1.
Distributed as reward for loyalty to friends and followers
2.
Personal relationships often replaced political platforms
2.
Hypothetical example of “Don Miguel”
1.
Use office to secure benefits for family, friends, informal clients
2.
Exchange for future favors
3.
Support had little to do with principle, but was about loyalty
4.
Clients would vote as their patron wished
5.
Don Miguel would be a client of someone higher
6.
Highest patron would be a caudillo
2.
Caudillos
1.
Who was a caudillo?
1.
Highest party or faction leader
1.
In office, the president
2.
Out of office, the second most powerful in the country
2.
2. Frequently large landowners
3.
Use wealth to maintain private armies
4.
Often war heroes
1.
The first were prominent veterans of independence
2.
Embodied masculine ideals
5.
5. Cultivated a common touch – identity with average people
6.
Ability to communicate with and manipulate followers
7.
Focus on personal leadership
2.
Juan Manuel de Rosas
1.
Dominated Argentina from 1829–52
1.
Rancher from the cattle fields called the pampa
2.
Used frontier militias as backing to control Buenos Aires
2.
2. Used violence against opponents
3.
Strong use of propaganda
1.
Put picture on church altars
2.
Supporters wore red ribbons
3.
Anyone caught without a ribbon could be beaten on the street
4.
III.
4. Closely identified with gauchos and poor black workers against urban
elites
5.
Made war on indigenous communities to open land for ranching
6.
Repelled British and French interventions
3.
Antonio López de Santa Anna
1.
Mexican caudillo
2.
Creole who fought against Hidalgo and Morelos
3.
Helped overthrow Iturbide
4.
In 1830s–40s, seemed to overthrow presidents at will
5.
Made himself president repeatedly as both Conservative and Liberal
4.
Central America
1.
Never rebelled, became independent on Mexico’s coattails
2.
Rafael Carrera
1.
Overthrew liberal leader Morazán
2.
Rural mestizo
3.
Protected lands of indigenous people
4.
Protected Catholic church
5.
Allowed the United Republics of Central America to collapse
into minirepublics of today
5.
José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia
1.
Ruled Paraguay from 1814–40
2.
Unusual caudillo
3.
Doctor of theology, not a war hero
4.
Called himself “el Supremo”
5.
Tried to seal Paraguay from European influence
6.
Spied on and arrested some European visitors
7.
Paraguay did become independent and prosperous
3.
Constitution and republic
1.
Constitutions constantly re-written
2.
Most countries were ruled by conservative caudillos
3.
Federalism often led to the breakup of large countries
1.
Greater Colombia into Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador
2.
Central American Republic into five parts
Brazil’s Different Path
1.
Maintained colonial institutions
1.
European monarchy
2.
Church-State link
3.
Embrace of slavery
2.
Stable and prosperous
1.
Provincial governors appointed, not elected
2.
Army loyal to the emperor
3.
Coffee produced revenue
3.
Liberal hopes and disappointments
1.
Pedro I claimed to be a Liberal, but ruled as authoritarian
1.
Ruled “by the grace of God”
2.
1824 constitution called for Senate appointed for life
3.
Emperor’s power virtually unchecked
2.
Pedro became unpopular, giving Liberals hope
IV.
1.
Presence of so many Portuguese angered ordinary Brazilians
2.
“Brazil for Brazilians”
3.
Death of his father made Pedro heir to Portuguese throne
1.
Renounced throne
2.
Prompted worries of recolonization
3.
Anti-Portuguese sentiment rose
4.
Abdicated Brazilian throne, returned to Portugal
5.
Left his five-year-old son to rule
6.
Regents had to rule for him until he came of age
4.
Regency years, 1831–40
1.
The regents were liberals
1.
Reduced size of army
2.
Gave greater authority to provincial officials
2.
2. Liberals quickly sought to regain greater power
3.
Liberals needed support of common people
1.
Raised nativist rhetoric
2.
Rebelled in four provinces
3.
Slaves became involved in rebellions
4.
4. Some elite Liberals became afraid
1.
Prince Pedro elevated to the throne at 14
2.
Rebuilt imperial army
3.
Canceled other liberal reforms
Continuities in Daily Life
1.
Daily life remained mostly unchanged
1.
Indigenous communities maintained autonomy
1.
Subsistence farming
2.
Little contact with republican institutions
2.
Mixed-race peasants
1.
Outnumbered indigenous in some places (Colombia)
2.
Worked as attached workers, or peons
1.
Lived on the property of a large landowner
2.
Became his clients, and he their patron
3.
Worked part-time for the patron
3.
3. Many peasants cleared forests to tend to their own plots
3.
Africans and African-descended people
1.
Enslaved in Brazil and Cuba
2.
Devoted to cultivating export crops
3.
Brazil important record number of African slaves
1.
Despite English-inspired prohibition on trade
2.
Laws on the books “for the English to see”
4.
4. Cuba benefitted from outlawing of slavery in other Caribbean islands
1.
Importing huge numbers of slaves
2.
Becoming “one big sugar factory”
4.
Landowners held the most power
1.
Eliminated merchant guilds to promote free trade
1.
Cut costs
2.
Wiped out local manufacturing
2.
2. Reliance on agricultural exports gives landowners more clout
5.
6.
7.
8.
1.
Gave landowners more political influence
2.
Urban merchants had fewer clients and followers
Transculturation encouraged by nativist rhetoric and landowner power
1.
Landowners
1.
Fewer maintained city homes
2.
Countryside now seen as defining native identity
2.
2. Mestizo cultural forms gain acceptance
1.
Creates distinction between Americanos and Spanish
2.
Folk dances seen as signifiers of national culture
1.
(i) Mexican jarabes
2.
(ii) Colombian bambucos
3.
3. Latin American literature
1.
Played a role in creating national identity in mid 1800s
2.
Costumbrismo
1.
(i) Popular literary form
2.
(ii) Focuses on lives of common people
3.
(iii) Published in newspapers
4.
(iv) Performed on stage
Nativism
1.
Expulsion of Spaniards from Mexico
2.
Rosista publicists created Pancho Lugares
1.
Gaucho character
2.
Mocked Europeans
Lower-class unrest
1.
Few challenges to elite, Creole authority
2.
Caste War of Yucatán
1.
Maya uprising
2.
Inspired by messages from a talking cross
3.
To cleanse land of whites and mestizos
4.
Called themselves Cruzob — “people of the cross”
3.
3. Bahían slave conspiracy, 1835
1.
Mâles – Arabic-speaking African slaves
2.
Alienated Christian slaves from joining
Cultural Hegemony
1.
White minority rule
2.
Relied on the idea of “civilization” for control
1.
Emulation of European model
2.
Required acceptance of a civilized ruling class
3.
Writing
1.
Spanish and Portuguese remained languages of law,
administration, long-distance communication
2.
Most Latin Americans could neither read nor write
3.
Written word central to new national culture
1.
(i) Written laws in legislature
2.
(ii) Published debates in newspapers
4.
Rhetorical skill central to political life
5.
Glamour associated with writing
1.
(i) Proper, formal poetry
9.
2.
(ii) Reciting literature, philosophy
6.
University education open only to men
Lives of women
1.
Women largely excluded from major changes of independence
2.
Achieved fame by connections to powerful men or by breaking gender
rules — or both
1.
Domitila de Castro
1.
(i) Known by her title, Marqueza de Santos
2.
(ii) Emperor’s mistress
3.
(iii) Family received noble titles
4.
(iv) Her daughter by the Emperor became a duchess
5.
(v) Humiliated his wife, Empress Leopoldina
1.
(1) She had helped convince Pedro to declare
Brazil independent
2.
(2) Died in pregnancy
3.
(3) Her death discredited Pedro and contributed
to his ouster
2.
Encarnación Ezcurra
1.
(i) Wife of Argentine caudillo Juan Manuel de Rosas
2.
(ii) Important political role, mostly behind the scenes
3.
(iii) Took over political affairs when Rosas was away
4.
(iv) Corresponded with Rosas over dealings with other
caudillos
1.
(1) Correspondence shows a tough Rosista
2.
(2) Dismissed slanders by enemies – “they will
pay dearly”
5.
(v) Rosas proclaimed her “Heroine of the Federation”
6.
(vi) Her death honors were traditional for a woman
7.
(vii) Daughter Manuela stepped into her shoes
1.
(1) Managed father’s political affairs
2.
(2) Known as “la Niña”
3.
(3) Was only able to marry after her father was
overthrown
3.
Camila O’Gorman
1.
(i) Famous for scandal
2.
(ii) Friend of Manuela
3.
(iii) Ran away with a young priest
1.
(1) Rosas’s enemies connected this with moral
corruption of Argentina under Rosas
2.
(2) Rosas promised to hunt them down
3.
(3) Both faced firing squad
3.
Patriarchy remained strong
1.
Women remained largely confined to home life
2.
Poor women worked in homes of elites
3.
Prostitution was a standard feature of urban life
4.
Eugenia Castro
1.
(i) Mistress of Rosas
2.
(ii) Six children with him
3.
4.
5.
V.
(iii) No recognition for her or family
(iv) Remained a servant in his home
(v) Rosas invited her to join him in England, but she
stayed in Argentina
5.
Upper class women remained confined by honor system
1.
(i) Honor system was evolving
2.
(ii) Post-independence honor system less rigid
1.
2.
(1) Poorer women could achieve honor
3.
(2) Republican ideals of motherhood and
chastity
4.
(3) Military service could gain honor for men
10.
Caste system less rigid
1.
Depended on wealth
1.
Economic class was more fluid
2.
Black, indigenous, or mixed-race individuals could gain wealth
and status more easily
3.
Economic power led to status
2.
Multiple racial categories were collapsing
3.
Two basic class categories
1.
Decent people at the top
1.
(i) Mostly white
2.
(ii) Wealthy
2.
“El pueblo” or “o povo,” — the people
4.
Upper class defended their position harshly
1.
Strict standards of behavior and fashion
2.
Based on European models
Countercurrents: The Power of Outsiders
1.
Latin American republics remained oriented toward England, France, United States
2.
For Liberals, these epitomized progress and civilization
3.
Strong desire for trade with these countries
1.
Peru’s guano boom
1.
Export of fertilizer – seabird manure
2.
Highly prized by European markets
3.
Created foreign investment in Peru
4.
Enriched the state
1.
Financed one of region’s first railroads
2.
Public gas lighting
3.
Public jobs for “decent people”
5.
Little of the boom reached the sierra beyond Lima
1.
State relied less on Andean silver and taxes
2.
Region was neglected
4.
Gunboat diplomacy
1.
Each of these countries sent warships to region
1.
Defend trade
2.
Punish governments, often for debt-payment delays
3.
U.S. war on Mexico
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mexican government had allowed slave-holding U.S.
southerners to settle in the province of Texas
1.
Settlers eventually outnumbered Mexicans
2.
Mexican state tried to limit regional autonomy
3.
Settlers rebelled, declaring Texas independent
After losing at the Alamo, Texas won independence
Annexed by the United States as a state in 1845
Fighting renewed amid Mexican fears of more U.S. expansion
1.
Mexico unable to fight off U.S. military
2.
United States occupied Mexico City
5. United States took half of Mexico’s territory, now the U.S.
West and Southwest
Chapter 5
Progress
Conservatism was dominant in the aftermath of independence. After 1850, however, liberals
made a comeback, finally initiating the social and economic changes that had mobilized them
during the independence struggle.
I.
Overview and context
1.
Conservative ascendance
1.
Promised security and tradition
2.
Ill-distribution of benefits
3.
Those outside the patronage system look for change
2.
Liberal reaction
1.
Landowners wanted greater export possibilities
2.
Urban dwellers wanted public works
3.
Industrialization in Europe
1.
Increased interest in Latin American markets
2.
New wave of European investment in Latin America
3.
Steam and steel transportation
3.
Transportation Revolution
1.
Steamships overtook old wood sailing ships
1.
Faster
2.
Carried more cargo
2.
Steam-powered railroad replaces mules and carts for overland transport
1.
Mules and carts limited quantity of exportable material brought to ports
2.
Railroads were expensive, but valuable
1.
Opened access to new areas
2.
Created agricultural booms
3.
Telgraph lines
1.
Allowed instant communication
2.
Carried electricity
3.
1874 — transAtlantic telegraph connects Brazil to Europe
4.
Progress
II.
1.
Idea of progress becomes new hegemonic ideal
2.
Focused on the model, products, and culture of Europe
3.
Export earnings could bring in European goods
4.
Fixated on technology
5.
Liberal parties ride this wave to power
Mexico’s liberal reforms
1.
Power of the Catholic church
1.
Church more powerful in Mexico than anywhere else
1.
Church held vast properties
2.
Chief moneylending institution
3.
Clergy had vast legal exemption called a fuero
4.
By Mexican law, 10 percent of income went to Church
2.
Ultramontane conservatism
1.
Church turned away from progressive priests like Morelos
2.
Coming from Rome
2.
Church and politics
1.
Independence articulated in religious language
2.
As Church became more conservative, Liberals became more anti-Church
3.
Power of Church was an affront to Progress
1.
Liberals attacked the fuero
2.
Unproductive wealth of church
4.
Conservatives adopt rallying cry: “religion and fueros!”
3.
Liberal ascendance
1.
Reaction against rule of Santa Anna
2.
Led by Juan Alvarez
1.
Mestizo caudillo
2.
From mountains of southern Mexico
3.
Melchor Ocampo
1.
Younger, well-educated liberal reformer
2.
Mestizo
3.
Humble beginnings
4.
Gifted intellectual
4.
Benito Juárez
1.
First fully indigenous man to become governor of a Mexican state
1.
Left his Zapotec village for Oaxaca
2.
Wore European clothing
3.
Studied and practiced law in Oaxaca
1.
(i) Defended villagers against abusive priest
2.
(ii) Sent to jail
4.
Elected to state legislature, congress, and governor of Oaxaca
2.
2. Left his Zapotec identity behind
1.
Did not represent Zapotec interests or indigenous communities
2.
To call him indio was an insult
3.
Used rice powder to lighten complexion
4.
Liberal reforms
1.
Juárez Law
1.
1855
2.
Attacked liberal and ecclesiastical fueros
2.
III.
Lerdo law
1.
1856
2.
Attacked power of Church
1.
Forced to sell off vast properties
2.
Jeopardized indigenous communal lands
3.
Liberals hoped to encourage individual effort and responsibility
1.
Turned many indigenous against Liberal Party
2.
Joined Conservatives in defense of tradition
5.
Civil War
1.
Conservative general overthrew president and dissolved congress
2.
Juárez chosen to command Liberal forces
3.
Liberals retake Mexico city
4.
War bankrupted the state
1.
Juárez defaults on Mexican loans
2.
Spanish, French, British occupied Veracruz
1.
French hoped to expand their influence
2.
Invented the term “Latin America” to naturalize their influence
5.
Conservatives appeal to Napoleon III in search of a monarch
1.
Maximilian
1.
Descended from Habsburg royalty
2.
Conservatives assured him that Mexico wanted an emperor
2.
2. French invade Mexico 1862
3.
Maximilian installed as emperor 1864
6.
Juárez leads nationalist reaction
1.
Maximilian pays tribute to Hidalgo to solidify his nationalist credentials
2.
Juárez a more convincing nationalist leader
3.
United States aids Juárez, threatened by French incursion in the
Americas
4.
French withdraw troops
5.
Maximilian captured and executed
6.
Juárez becomes president
1.
Conservatives permanently discredited in Mexico
2.
Church never regains past power
Other Countries Join the Liberal Trend
1.
Colombia
1.
Conservative post-independence surge
1.
Restored the fuero for clergy
2.
Invited Jesuit order to return
2.
Liberal resurgence in 1850s
1.
Expelled Jesuits again
2.
Removed fuero
3.
Made tithes voluntary
4.
Legalized divorce
3.
Tomás Cipriano de Mosquera
1.
Liberal caudillo
2.
Took power in 1861
3.
Two decades of liberal rule
2.
Chile
1.
2.
IV.
Politics marked by conservative stability
Only three presidents in three decades
1.
Managed elections
2.
Export growth
3.
Unusual freedom of thought and expression
3.
Chile was very different from Mexico
1.
Little experience with liberalism
2.
Small indigenous population
1.
Mapuches
2.
Lived in far south
3.
Isolated from national community
3.
3. Developed strong export economy
1.
Wheat
2.
Copper
3.
Silver
4.
Liberals attacked traditional Church-State connections
1.
Church was not as powerful as elsewhere
2.
Official religion was attacked as vestige of colonialism
5.
Montt
1.
Former minister of education
2.
President of Chile
3.
Leads modernization projects
4.
Favored a Liberal for president in 1861
6.
Liberals remained in control for three decades
1.
Limited church power
2.
Modernized capital city of Santiago
3.
Rigged elections
3.
Central America
1.
Followed similar path as other Latin American states
2.
Guatemala, El Salvador, Costa Rica, Honduras all joined liberal swell
3.
Only Nicaragua resisted
1.
Nicaraguan Liberals invited foreign intervention
2.
William Walker
1.
Fundamentalist Christian from Tennessee
2.
Walker attempted, on his own initiative, to colonize Nicaragua
for the United States
3.
Made himself president with support of Liberals
1.
(i) Freedom of religion
2.
(ii) English language
3.
(iii) Land grants to U.S. immigrants
4.
(iv) Legalized slavery
4.
Captured and executed by joint central American army
The Limits of Progress for Women
1.
In mid-1800s, women saw few benefits from liberalism
1.
Education for women expanded very slowly
2.
Women still confined to home life
3.
Very few women occupied leading roles in public life
2.
A few women achieved fame through writing
1.
V.
Gertrudis Gómez de Avellaneda
1.
Left native Cuba for Spain
2.
Novel Sab banned in Cuba
1.
Followed an enslaved man in love with his female owner
2.
He sacrifices his life for her
3.
She realizes his superiority
4.
Literary argument for abolition
3.
3. Mid-century Cuba
1.
Plantation slaves grew a third of world’s sugar
2.
Cuba offered great opportunities for Spaniards
3.
As Cubans fought for independence, Spain kept war away from
sugar-growing sectors
4.
Revolutionaries reprinted Sab
4.
4. Sab broke social boundaries
1.
Discussed interracial love
2.
Criticized slavery
2.
Juana Manuela Gorriti
1.
Writings were feminine and instructive
2.
Entered a convent school
3.
Family fled Argentina for Bolivia
4.
Married Manuel Isidro Belzú, who would become president of Bolivia
5.
She moved to Perú after Belzú abandoned her
6.
Held tertulias on intellectual subjects
7.
Wrote journalistic articles
1.
Intended for women
2.
Instructions on modern womanhood
8.
8. Served as a battlefield nurse when Spanish vessels attacked
9.
Moved to Buenos Aires
3.
Clorinda Matto de Turner
1.
Gorriti helped launch her career in Lima
2.
Sought extracurricular instruction in biology and physics
3.
Wrote “Birds without a Nest”
1.
Published 1889
2.
One of the most important early novels about indigenous life
1.
(i) Other works relied on image of romantic savage
2.
(ii) Matto depicted them as Peruvians living in the
present
3.
(iii) Depicts interracial affair between white man and
indigenous woman
4.
4. Crusader for indigenous
5.
Critical of church
6.
Organized tertulias
7.
Founded a periodical for women
Models of Progress
1.
Argentine liberal leaders exemplify European obsession and focus on written culture
1.
Juan Bautista Alberdi
1.
Studied law in Buenos Aires
2.
Became a salon radical in 1830s
3.
4.
2.
Fled Rosas regime to Montevideo
Published “Bases and Points of Departure for the Political Organization
of the Argentine Republic” after Rosas was overthrown
5.
Eventually became Argentine diplomat in Chile
6.
Encouraged European immigration to Argentina
1.
Europeans possessed superior qualities
2.
“To govern is to populate”
7.
7. Encouraged modern education
8.
Believed Argentines should learn English
2.
Bartolomé Mitré
1.
Prolific writer, speaker, military leader
2.
Disputed with Alberdi over place of Buenos Aires
3.
Buenos Aires was most important city in Argentina
4.
Lacked a good port
5.
Steam power allowed vessels to bypass Buenos Aires
6.
Tensions kept Buenos Aires out of Argentine Federation
7.
Mitré led Buenos Aires forces against Federation
8.
Buenos Aires established as capital of a united Argentina
3.
Domingo Faustino Sarmiento
1.
Most influential Latin American liberal
2.
Wrote the anti-Rosas “Civilization and Barbarism”
3.
Interest in international cultures
4.
Became involved in organization of Chilean public schools
5.
Studied education in the United States and Europe
6.
Elected president of Argentina while a diplomat in United States
7.
Brought U.S. teachers to improve education
1.
School enrollment doubled
2.
Nearly 100 public libraries built
8.
8. Successfully encouraged wave of European immigration
4.
Liberals accepted European scientific racism as well
1.
Viewed racial mixing as a national tragedy
2.
Sarmiento derided Argentina’s gauchos as subhuman
Brazilian liberalism
1.
Society was not well-suited to liberal thinking
1.
Monarchy
2.
Slavery
3.
Mixed-race population
2.
Triple Alliance War becomes catalyst for change
1.
1865–70
2.
Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay defeated Paraguay
1.
Under Francisco Solano López, Paraguay acquired powerful
army
2.
Believed Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay threatened Paraguay’s
outlet to the sea
3.
Paraguay attacks
4.
Paraguay’s adult male population was decimated
5.
Brazil and Argentina gained land
3.
3. War created disillusionment in Brazil
1.
VI.
Called up hundreds of thousands of volunteers to fight
Paraguayan “tyranny”
2.
War was in the service of liberalism and civilization
3.
Caused many to question Brazilian civilization
1.
(i) Brazil was one of two remaining slave societies in the
Americas
2.
(ii) Presence of free blacks and slaves in the army
illuminated the contradiction
4.
4. Liberalism re-emerged
1.
Elite Brazilians believed Brazil was unready for democracy
2.
Emperor Pedro II argued that Brazil was backward
1.
(i) Seemed to regret this
2.
(ii) Took his role seriously
3.
(iii) Philosophical Liberal, believed in Progress
5.
5. In 1860s, many Conservatives broke away to join the Liberals
6.
Pedro II sided with a commander against liberal prime minister during
Triple Alliance War, infuriating liberals
7.
Liberal manifesto of 1869
1.
Calls for democratic reform
2.
Gradual emancipation of slaves
3.
“Reform or revolution”
8.
8. A more radical group issues second manifesto
1.
Demands limitations on emperor’s power
2.
Immediate abolition of slavery
9.
9. Third manifesto — 1870
1.
Calls for ouster of the emperor
2.
End of slavery
3.
Creation of Brazilian republic
10.
10. 1871, “free birth” law
1.
Children would be born free
2.
Signals an eventual end to slavery
11.
11. Conservative governments ruled, but progress caught on
1.
Coffee growers begin to attract Italian immigrant workers
2.
Export economy fueled growth of cities
3.
Urban Brazilians were more likely to embrace progress
12.
12. Joaquim Nabuco becomes leading abolitionist
1.
Popular celebrity featured on beer and cigar labels
2.
Condemned slavery as obstacle to progress
3.
After 1886, Brazil was only slave society
13.
13. Pedro’s daughter Isabel signs “Golden Law” of freedom — 1888
14.
14. Brazilian monarchy collapsed in 1889
Countercurrents: International Wars
1.
Wars have been rare but catalyzing events in Latin America
1.
Mexican-American War
2.
Triple Alliance War
2.
Chaco War (1932–35)
1.
Paraguay fought Bolivia over the Chaco
2.
The Chaco is a desolate region
3.
3.
4.
5.
Bolivia
1.
2.
3.
War emerged after oil discovered
Paraguayan victory doubled national territory
Only major war fought between countries in 1900s
Defeat was third defeat in wars on the Pacific coast
War of the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation (1836–39)
1.
Resulted from unification of Peru and Bolivia
2.
Chilean government attacked
3.
Chilean victory ended confederation
War of the Pacific (1879–84)
1.
Conflict over the Atacama Desert
2.
Chile, Peru, and Bolivia all claimed a portion of the desolate coast
3.
All three were selling claims to nitrate deposits
4.
Conflict over mining led to Chilean attack
5.
Peru and Bolivia lost territory
6.
Chile’s economy relied on the nitrates for decades
Chapter 6
Neocolonialism
As Latin American countries embraced the idea of progress, the very countries that served as
models of modernity were those that installed it in the Americas, and often came to own it.
Foreign investment and influence became so powerful in Latin America that many historians call
the period of 1880–1930 the neocolonial period.
I.
The Great Export Boom
1.
More than half a century of rapid, sustained economic growth
1.
Total value of Mexican trade increased 900 percent between 1877–1910
2.
By 1900, Brazil produced two-thirds of coffee drunk in the world
3.
Cuba’s sugar production reached 5 million tons by 1929
4.
Chilean nitrates, copper, iron worth hundreds of millions
5.
Argentina’s wheat exports increased 1000 times by 1900
6.
Smaller countries had their own version of export boom
2.
Increase in railroads integral to the boom
3.
Beneficiaries were large landowners and urban merchants<
1.
Land values soared with railroads
2.
Merchants and workers with secondary functions in import/export economy
3.
Middle class grew rapidly
1.
Argentina’s large middle class was one-third of population
2.
Mexico’s small middle class was more typical
4.
The majority of Latin Americans saw no benefit from progress
1.
Railroads pushed peasants off their land in Mexico
2.
Displaced peasants become employees of landowners
3.
Indigenous people who had held on to communal land in Mexico were now
forced out by landowners
4.
Only 3 percent of Mexicans owned land in 1910
5.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Most lived as peons on rural haciendas
1.
Landless peasants had no place to grow subsistence crops
2.
Once working for landowners, had little time to grow their own crops
3.
Wages were often too small to support a family
4.
Women and children joined labor force
5.
Vagrancy laws harassed those who avoided wage labor
Argentina
1.
Italian immigrants served as labor for wheat production
1.
Rarely acquired their own land
2.
Many moved into the cities
2.
Gauchos vanished from the pampa
1.
Wire fences
2.
Fancy English breeds of cattle and sheep
3.
Trade in chilled beef more profitable than dried beef
1.
1876 first refrigerator ship
2.
By 1900, refrigerator ships numbered in the hundreds
Coffee booms in the tropics
1.
European immigrants needed in Brazil after abolition of slavery
1.
To attract Europeans, landowners give some land for worker cultivation
2.
Italian immigrants able to benefit from export boom
3.
Usually they eventually moved to the cities
2.
El Salvador, Guatemala and southern Mexico
1.
Indigenous people provided the labor
2.
Plantations owned by foreigners, usually Germans
3.
Family farms grow some crops profitably
1.
Coffee helps create a rural middle class in Colombia, Costa Rica, and
Puerto Rico
2.
Tobacco in Cuba and Brazil
Sugar and Mining
1.
Massive, industrialized operations
2.
Divided societies into rich and poor
3.
Sugar dominated in northern Brazil, coastal Peru, and Caribbean
1.
Owners of sugar refineries dominated rural economy
1.
Immediate milling crucial to sugar production
2.
Refinery owners set price; growers had little choice
2.
2. Cane cutters
1.
Industrialized workforce
2.
Low wages
3.
Spent half of the year unemployed
4.
Cubans called it “the dead time”
4.
Mining in Mexico, Peru, Bolivia, Chile
1.
Powerful companies employ thousands of workers
2.
Workers have little or no bargaining power
3.
Usually foreign-owned, due to need for massive capital
Rubber boom in Amazonia
1.
Latex sap of rubber tree used in United States for tires
2.
Rubber harvesters lived isolated along Amazon river banks
3.
In Brazil, many tappers fled droughts in the sertão
4.
9.
10.
11.
Elsewhere, many indigenous people became tappers
1.
Low wages
2.
Barely enough to pay for supplies they purchased from employers
5.
Rubber trade produced huge profits for international traders
6.
1910, rubber accounted for a quarter of Brazil’s export earnings
1.
“Rubber barons” had more money than they could handle
2.
Famously built an opera house deep in the Amazon
7.
Rubber boom ravaged indigenous communities
1.
Alcoholism
2.
Disease
8.
By the 1920s, Malaysian rubber undercut price, killing Amazon industry
Bananas
1.
U.S. companies came to Caribbean basin in 1880s–90s
1.
Merged into United Fruit Company
2.
Operated in Costa Rica, Honduras, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Panama,
Colombia, Venezuela
2.
Banana companies had far greater economic power than host countries
3.
“Banana Republics”
1.
Foreign companies control governments
1.
Companies control land
2.
Companies control railroads, or sometimes vice-versa
2.
2. Created company towns
1.
Inhabited by managers, agronomists, engineers
2.
Miniature U.S. cities
3.
Company ships brought clothes, newspapers, etc. from United
States.
4.
Contributed little to the development of host nations
1.
Managerial positions reserved for foreigners
2.
Locals did “machete work”
3.
Paid favorable taxes to government
Migration to cities
1.
Cities remained small
2.
Attracted migration from countryside and overseas
1.
Buenos Aires largest city at two-thirds of a million
2.
Rio followed with nearly half a million
3.
Montevideo, Santiago, Havana and São Paulo have 250,000
3.
Cities were commercial, administrative, and service centers
4.
Landowners spent export profits in cities
1.
Accumulated mansions, artwork, china, etc.
2.
Eventually became urban, leaving business in the hands of a hired
administrator or family member
Education became important to landowning families
1.
Most studied law
2.
Intended for politics
3.
Urbanization meant education
1.
Argentina and Uruguay were most literate
2.
Brazil, mostly rural, only 2 in 10 literate
4.
Education opened doors to mixed-race people
1.
II.
Joaquim Maria Machado de Assis
1.
Considered greatest Brazilian novelist
2.
Mother was a laundress
3.
Worked his way up
4.
Became president of Academy of Letters
2.
2. Rubén Dário
1.
Mestizo from Nicaragua
2.
Received universal reverence
3.
One of the most influential Spanish-language poets
Authoritarian Rule: Oligarchies and Dictatorships
1.
Democracy takes back seat to export growth and progress
1.
“Scientific rule” by “best and brightest”
2.
“Positivism” prescribes authoritarian rule for order and progress
3.
“Order and progress” becomes slogan on Brazilian flag
2.
Government becomes more orderly
1.
Tax revenue increases
2.
National armies and police receive modern weapons and training
3.
European military advisers
4.
Railroads and telegraphs speed troops to quash rebellions
5.
Increased revenue increases size of government, creating jobs
6.
Greater stability attracts more foreign investment
7.
Stable, authoritarian governments become the norm
3.
Managed elections
1.
Keep rural majorities from influencing politics
2.
Tug of war between patronage networks
3.
Those in power named election officials from their side
4.
Local efforts to cast many ballots per person and prevent rival from doing the
same
5.
Landowners controlled the votes of their clients
6.
Local authorities could disqualify rival’s clients from voting
7.
Although corruption was protested, it was difficult to thwart
8.
Oligarchies
1.
Rule by the few
2.
Narrow ruling class of economic elites
9.
Dictatorships
1.
Ruled by a powerful individual
2.
Sometimes supported by managed elections
4.
Porfirio Díaz
1.
Ruled Mexico from 1876–1911
1.
Part Mixtec
2.
From the south of Mexico
3.
Hero of anti-French struggle
2.
Epitome of neocolonial dictatorships in Latin America
1.
Maintained appearance of constitutionality, but managed elections to
keep himself and allies in power
2.
Circle of technocratic advisers called “científicos”
3.
Value of import/export trade rose ten times
4.
Curbed threats from caudillos by crushing them or buying them off
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
III.
Bureaucracy created middle class jobs
“Pan o palo,” or “carrot or stick”
Mexican rail system
Monument-lined avenues
Removed indigenous people from downtown Mexico City so country
would look better to foreign visitors
3.
Founded the rurales, to secure rural areas for foreign investors
1.
Foreigners owned about one-quarter of Mexico’s land
2.
Foreign companies owned silver and oil concerns
5.
Neocolonial Brazil
1.
Oligarchic
2.
Decentralized federation of twenty states
1.
Landowners enjoyed local autonomy
2.
Coffee and sugar planters, ranchers, rubber barons managed local
elections to their benefit
3.
Regional oligarchies controlled states
4.
Each state kept its own export revenues
5.
Two most powerful states – São Paulo and Minas Gerais – traded
control of presidency
3.
Resistance in northeastern Brazil
1.
1874–5, peasants rioted to reject imposition of metric weights that they
believed would cheat them
2.
Burned records and archives used to evict families who had no title to
land
3.
Bandits with Robin Hood reputations became folk heroes
4.
Tradition of wandering holy men
1.
Revived religious tradition
2.
Sometimes believed to work miracles
1.
(i) Antonio the counselor
1.
(1) Preached against materialism and the
“godless republic”
2.
(2) Canudos, his base, becomes second largest
city in the state
3.
(3) Brazilian federal government attacks
Canudos
2.
(ii) The Backlands
1.
(1) Famous chronicle of Canudos events
2.
(2) Euclides de Cunha
3.
(3) Describes clash as civilization vs. barbarism
Links with the Outside World
1.
Rise of feminist movements
1.
Feminist movements emerge in places where international influence was
greatest
1.
Patriarchy goes largely unchallenged in rural areas
2.
Many feminist leaders had non-Iberian surnames
2.
Paulina Luisi of Uruguay
1.
First woman in Uruguay to get a medical degree
2.
Italian name typical of immigrant-populated Montevideo
2.
3.
Called an anarchist for urging use of a sex education textbook
4.
Represented Uruguay at international women’s conferences
5.
In 1919 began drive for women’s voting rights in Uruguay
6.
1922 honorary vice president of Pan-American Conference on Women
3.
Berta Lutz
1.
Father was Swiss-Brazilian, mother English
2.
Became a biologist
3.
Left São Paulo to study in Europe
4.
In 1918, published a feminist call-to-arms
1.
Said Brazilian women were lagging behind European and U.S.
women
2.
Women could be “valuable instrument of progress in Brazil”
5.
5. Brazilian Federation for Feminine Progress
6.
Brazilian women got vote in 1932, before Uruguayan, Argentine, or
most Latin American women
Colonialism
1.
Until late 1800s, Britain was most powerful in Latin America
1.
Military exploits were limited
1.
Argentina bore the brunt
2.
Malvinas/Falklands
2.
2. Commercial and financial expansion
1.
Great Britain owned over half of Latin America’s foreign
investment and debt
2.
Great Britain was a model of progressive economics and politics
3.
Men adopted British clothing
2.
U.S. involvement began to displace British in 1890s
1.
U.S. depression spurs desire for overseas markets
2.
Alfred Thayer Mahan
1.
Calls for stronger navy
2.
Canal linking Atlantic and Pacific
3.
3. Calls for annexation of Hawaii
3.
U.S. intervention in Cuba
1.
1898 United States declares war on Spain and intervenes in Cuba
1.
Invaded Puerto Rico and Philippines
2.
War lasted only a few weeks
3.
“Yellow journalism” reports of Spanish atrocities in Cuba
4.
U.S. public opinion favors “rescuing” Cuba from Spain
2.
2. Outcome of war benefits U.S. economic and strategic interests
1.
Cuba remained a protectorate for 35 years
2.
Platt Amendment allows United States to intervene in Cuban
affairs
3.
Philippines
1.
(i) Commercial gateway to Asia
2.
(ii) Governed directly until World War II
4.
Theodore Roosevelt
1.
War in Cuba boosted his political career
2.
As president, acquired U.S. base in Panama
1.
(i) Helped separate Panama from Colombia
3.
2.
(ii) Bought canal rights from new Panamanian government
3.
(iii) Deal secured with no native Panamanian participation
5.
U.S. attitudes toward Latin Americans shaped by racial prejudice
1.
Rudyard Kipling’s “white man’s burden”
1.
Duty of whites to civilize non-Europeans
2.
Idea influenced U.S. mission in Latin America
3.
Senator Alfred Beveridge – “God has marked the American
people as His chosen nation to finally lead the regeneration of
the world”
2.
2. Roosevelt Corollary
1.
Update to Monroe Doctrine
2.
U.S. military would intervene around the region
3.
3. U.S. newspapers caricature Latin American nations
1.
Naughty schoolboys
2.
“Little black Sambo”
4.
4. Intervention needed to discipline Latin America
6.
Pan-American Union
1.
Promote free trade
2.
Initially composed of ambassadors to the United States
3.
Pan-American conferences
1.
United States promoted trade
2.
Latin American countries voiced dismay at U.S. interventions
3.
Protests came to a head at Havana Conference of 1928
7.
Latin American protest
1.
United States had intervened in Cuba, Puerto Rico, Panama, as well as in
Nicaragua, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic
2.
By late 1920s, United States engaged in a war with Nicaraguan rebels
1.
Led by Augusto Sandino
2.
Accused United States of imperialism
3.
Became hero to many Latin Americans
3.
3. Latin American writers protest
1.
Darío condemns “godless” Roosevelt
2.
José Martí defends “our America”
1.
(i) Cuba’s greatest patriotic hero
2.
(ii) Exiled from Cuba at age 16
3.
(iii) Edited magazine in Mexico
4.
(iv) Taught in Guatemala
5.
(v) Organized Cuban independence
6.
(vi) Wrote on the United States from New York
3.
José Enrique Rodó
1.
(i) Uruguayan essayist
2.
(ii) Wrote Ariel (1900)
3.
(iii) Accused U.S. culture of crass materialism
4.
4. Rise of cinema helped bind Latin America to United States
Neocolonial model shattered by depression
1.
U.S. market crash in 1929
2.
Demand for Latin American exports plummeted
3.
Importation of progress halted
IV.
Countercurrents: New Immigration to Latin America
1.
Mass movement of laborers from southern Europe
1.
Nine-tenths of immigrants went to the southern cone countries
2.
Climate for farming would allow European crops
3.
Land sparsely settled
4.
Poorest colonial areas would become richest parts of Latin America
2.
Argentina
1.
Five million European immigrants
2.
Half of the population of Buenos Aires was European in 1914
3.
Italian and Spanish, but also Irish, Jewish, German, Austrian, French, English, and
Swiss
4.
Conventillos – colonial mansions converted into multiple apartments
5.
Many immigrants began as farmers, then moved to Buenos Aires
6.
Tango lyrics written in Spanish/Italian slang called lunfardo
3.
Southern Brazil
1.
Attracted immigrants from Italy, Portugal, Spain, Germany, as well as eastern
European Jews
2.
São Paulo attracted Japanese immigrants
3.
Ethnic colonies emerged in the south as immigrants were granted land
4.
Spanish immigration to Cuba
5.
Middle Eastern immigrants all over region
Chapter 7
Nationalism
In the wake of neocolonialism, Latin Americans remade the nativist rhetoric of the past to push a
new nationalist cultural and economic agenda.
I.
Nationalism
1.
Latin American nations had been defined by their internal diversity
1.
Transculturation
2.
Racial mixing
2.
Europeans had associated Latin American difference with a negative meaning
1.
Nativism challenged this attitude
2.
Nativism faded after independence
3.
New nationalism was another wave of nativism with strong economic agenda
4.
Who were nationalists?
1.
Often urban, middle class
2.
Mixed-race or recent immigrants
3.
Benefitted less from export boom
5.
Nationalism challenged the supposed superiority of European culture
1.
Reinterpretation of Latin American difference as positive
2.
Use of local cultural forms to define that difference
6.
Critique of foreign intervention
1.
Military intervention
2.
Economic power
7.
II.
Ethnic nationalism
1.
Differs from U.S. “civic nationalism”
2.
Employs signs of ethnic identity
1.
Foods
2.
Dance
3.
Clothing
3.
Celebrates racial mixing
1.
Adaptation to Latin American environment
2.
Sometimes as improvement — best of all races
3.
Nicolás Guillen
1.
Premier exponent of Afro-Cuban identity
2.
“Ballad of Two Grandfathers”
3.
Poems sometimes mimicked Afro-Cuban speech
4.
Many writers use indigenous and Afro-Cuban themes
1.
Alejo Carpentier (Cuba)
2.
Ciro Alegría (Peru)
3.
Miguel ángel Asturias (Guatemala)
Nationalists Take Power
1.
Mexican Revolution
1.
Díaz had ruled for 34 years by 1910
2.
Reformers back Francisco Madero
1.
Madero sought only more power for elites in Díaz government
2.
Madero was jailed and exiled
3.
Madero radicalizes, proposes returning indigenous lands
4.
Emiliano Zapata
1.
From indigenous community of Anenecuilo
2.
Lost land to sugar plantations
3.
Allied his movement with Madero
4.
His image — sombrero, mustache, horse — become iconic of Revolution
5.
One of many local leaders moving against the government
5.
Madero goes into exile in 1911
1.
Díaz unseated by a general, killed
2.
Years of upheaval, multiple armies fighting at once
6.
Pancho Villa
1.
Northern Mexico
2.
Army comprised of cowboys, miners, railroad workers, oil workers
3.
Very different from Zapata’s southern indigenous rebellion
7.
Constitutionalists
1.
Third movement along with Villa and Zapata
2.
Urban, middle class
3.
Drafted a new constitution in 1917
4.
More typical of Latin American nationalists
5.
May be considered the “winners” of the revolution
8.
Constitution of 1917
1.
Article 27 reclaims oil rights for nation from foreign companies
2.
Paved the way for villages to recover common lands (ejidos)
3.
Division of large landholdings, distribution to landless peasants
4.
Article 123 – labor regulations
5.
6.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Limited privileges of foreigners
Curbed Catholic church
1.
No longer could hold land
2.
Limits to number of clergy
3.
Clergy could not wear ecclesiastical clothes in the street
4.
Clergy could not teach primary school
7.
7. Defeated Villa and Zapata
8.
Fought off Catholic traditionalist “Cristero” rebellion
9.
Created single-party political system
1.
Remained in power as Revolutionary Party for seventy years
2.
Employed Villa, Zapata, Madero as its heroes
Revolution was transformative for Mexico
1.
Created new loyalties
2.
Occupied a central space in the national imagination
3.
Two U.S. interventions added nationalist luster
New government initiatives
1.
Road initiative decreases isolation of rural areas
2.
Land redistribution
3.
Public education initiative
4.
José Vasconcelos
1.
Minister of Education
2.
Celebrated the “Cosmic Race,” meaning mestizos
Artists Diego Rivera and Frida Kahlo illustrate revolutionary nationalism
1.
Diego Rivera
1.
Muralist
2.
Depicted Mexico’s indigenous past
3.
Painted Ministry of Public Education
1.
(i) Images of open-air schools
2.
(ii) Indigenous peasants dividing land
4.
Mexico’s national palace
1.
(i) Scenes of Tenochtitlán
2.
(ii) Depicts Spanish conquest as a hypocritical bloodbath
2.
2. Frida Kahlo
1.
Small self-portraits
2.
Painted while bedridden
1.
(i) Polio survivor
2.
(ii) Crippled by a traffic accident
3.
(iii) Multiple surgeries
3.
Depicted herself with cultural symbols of Mexico
1.
(i) Traditional hairstyles
2.
(ii) Folk dresses
3.
(iii) Pre-Colombian jewelry
Nationalism was en vogue in the 1920s–30s
1.
Folk music (corridos)
2.
Dance (jarabes)
3.
Traditional dishes (moles and tamales)
4.
Old-style theater (carpas)
5.
Mexican films
13.
2.
3.
Nationalist movement had Marxist overtones
1.
Kahlo and Rivera joined Communist party
2.
Soviet exile Trotsky lived in Mexico
Uruguay
1.
Background
1.
Export boom rivaled that of Argentina
2.
Ruled through managed elections
2.
José Batlle y Ordóñez
1.
Country’s great nationalist reformer
2.
First term (1903–07) vanquished political rivals
3.
Broad support among immigrant working and middle class of
Montevideo
3.
Batllismo
1.
Civic and economic nationalism
2.
State action against “foreign economic imperialism”
1.
Tariffs to protect local business
2.
Government monopoly on public utilities
1.
(i) Formerly British-owned railroad
2.
(ii) Port of Montevideo
3.
Government ownership of tourist hotels
4.
Government owned meat-packing plants
5.
State-owned banks
3.
3. Hemisphere’s first welfare state
1.
Minimum wage
2.
Labor regulations
3.
Paid vacations
4.
Accident insurance
5.
Public education expanded
6.
University opened to women
4.
4. Batllismo relied on prosperity to sustain reforms
5.
Left rural Uruguay largely untouched
6.
Aggressively anti-clerical
7.
Tried to abolish presidency in favor of a council
8.
Considered a “civil caudillo”
Argentina — Hipólito Yrigoyen
1.
“Revolution of the ballot box” (1916)
1.
Radical Civic Union
2.
Middle-class reform party with working class support
3.
First truly mass-based political party in Latin America
4.
Rewarded supporters with public jobs
5.
Reforms less audacious than in Uruguay
1.
Used nationalist rhetoric
2.
Did not significantly affect presence of foreign capital
6.
6. Created government agency to oversee oil production
2.
Man of the people
1.
Hated, and hated by, urban elite
2.
Framed politics in moral terms
3.
Lived in a simple house
3.
4.
4.
5.
Rejected European and U.S. initiatives
Repressed labor action
1.
“Tragic week” of 1919
2.
Patagonian sheep herders’ strike of 1921
5.
Returned to power in 1928
Víctor Mánuel Haya de la Torre (Peru)
1.
Exiled from Peru for protesting a U.S.-backed dictatorship
2.
Lived in Mexico, influenced by Mexican Revolution
3.
Formed Popular American Revolutionary Alliance (APRA)
1.
International party
2.
Defense against economic imperialism
4.
Preferred the term “Indo-America” to Latin America
5.
Indigenismo – nationalist emphasis on indigenous roots
1.
José Carlos Mariátegui imagined indigenous socialism
2.
Inca models combined with Marxist theory
3.
Peruvian society ethnically split, so indigenismo was not successful
6.
APRA
1.
Did not succeed as international party
2.
Indigenismo scared Peru’s Conservatives
3.
Mass rallies against oligarchy, imperialism
4.
Party revolted after losing a managed election
5.
Rebellion crushed, party banned
7.
Ciró Alegría
1.
High-ranking APRA militant
2.
Fled Peru
3.
Wrote indigenismo fiction
4.
Authored “Wide and Alien is the World”
5.
Best-known Latin American indigenismo writer
Nationalists were influential even when kept from power
1.
Colombia
1.
Nationalists tried to outflank conservative client networks
1.
Unionized urban workers
2.
Rural oligarchies were too strong
2.
2. Jorge Eliécer Gaitán
1.
Fiery popular leader
2.
Rose to fame protesting massacre of banana workers at U.S.owned plantation
2.
Venezuela
1.
Oil money kept leaders entrentched
2.
Popular outreach carried out by communist or socialist activists
3.
Chile
1.
Thirteen-day “Socialist Republic”
2.
Nationalists on the right prevented consolidation of a government
4.
Cuba
1.
Broad nationalist coalition ousted neocolonial dictator
2.
Included university students and non-commissioned army officers
3.
Fulgencio Batista
1.
Led military element of revolution
III.
2.
Bowed to U.S. influence
3.
Nationalism as window-dressing
ISI and Activist Governments of the 1930s
1.
Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI)
1.
International trade collapses during 1930s Depression
2.
Latin American manufacturers fill void left by collapsed trade
3.
Began during trade disruption during World War I
1.
Buenos Aires, São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Mexico City develop industry
2.
Latin American industry remains mostly undeveloped
4.
Industrialization becomes central to nationalism
1.
Economic activism
1.
Setting wages and prices
2.
Regulating production levels
3.
Protective labor laws
4.
Manipulated exchange rates
2.
2. State ownership of banks, utilities, key industries
5.
Largest markets benefitted from ISI
1.
Mexico
2.
Southern Cone nations
6.
Smaller markets did not see much industrialization
1.
Poor, rural populations
2.
Less market for domestically-produced products
7.
Light industry responded better to ISI than heavy industry
1.
Heavy industry required importing equipment
2.
Required steel
3.
Only Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, and Chile had steel industries
2.
Brazil
1.
Industry surpassed agriculture as percentage of GDP within two decades
2.
Getúlio Vargas
1.
Compared to U.S. president FDR (Franklin Delano Roosevelt)
1.
Made famous use of radio
2.
Vastly expanded government
3.
Oligarchic republic begins to collapse in 1920s
4.
Young army officers – tenentes –stage symbolic uprisings
5.
Coffee industry in crisis from overproduction
1.
“Coffee Valorization Program” cannot offset drops in prices
2.
Depression in 1929 causes prices to plummet again
6.
Revolution of 1930
1.
Vargas was governor of Rio Grande do Sul, non-coffee state
2.
Candidate from coffee-producing São Paulo won a managed election
3.
Opposition forces gather to dispute result
4.
Vargas takes presidency with support of the army
5.
Revolution of 1930 brought together diverse political movements
1.
Frustrated liberals
2.
Tenentes — nationalists who despised Liberals
7.
Young Tenentes absorb radical ideologies
1.
Many tenentes joined communist party
2.
Communist party at the center of Alliance for National Liberation (ALN)
8.
9.
10.
3.
Others join Integralists, inspired by European fascism
Vargas presidency
1.
Ruled more-or-less constitutionally for seven years
2.
Played different political factions against each other
3.
Took dictatorial power in 1937
4.
Announced Estado Novo (New State)
1.
Highly authoritarian
2.
Dissolved legislative bodies
3.
Banned political parties
4.
Media censored
5.
“Interventors” appointed to direct state governments
6.
Police operated with brutal impunity
5.
5. Nationalism helped maintain his popularity
1.
Flood of new government agencies
2.
National Steel Company
3.
National Motor Factory
4.
Prohibited foreign ownership of newspapers
5.
Assimilation pressure on immigrant communities
Promotion of Afro-Brazilian heritage
1.
Gilberto Freyre
1.
Anthropologist
2.
Authored The Masters and the Slaves
3.
Argued that African heritage created Brazil’s national identity
2.
2. Samba became Brazil’s national dance
3.
Carmen Miranda
1.
Known for her fruit-hats
2.
Movie star first in Brazil, then in United States
3.
In Brazil, movies occupied a nationalist niche — national dance,
national music
4.
In the United States, became a caricature of Latin America
5.
Born in Portugal, raised in Brazil
6.
Dance, costumes, and songs embodied Brazil
São Paulo Modern Art Week, 1922
1.
Heitor Villa-Lobos
1.
Integrated Brazilian folk melodies into classical compositions
2.
Under Vargas, worked on national program for musical
enrichment
3.
Remains Latin America’s most famous classical composer
2.
2. Oswald de Andrade
1.
“Cannabalist manifesto” 1928
2.
Suggested that Brazilians metaphorically cannibalize European
art
1.
(i) Consume and digest it
2.
(ii) Combine it with indigenous and African art to create
Brazilian forms
3.
3. Jorge Amado
1.
Best-known Brazilian novelist
2.
Novels set in strongly Afro-Brazilian Bahia
11.
3.
4.
5.
Placing Vargas on the left-right spectrum
1.
Organized labor unions
2.
Protected workers
1.
48-hour work week
2.
Safety standards
3.
Retirement and pension plans
4.
Maternity benefits
3.
3. Paternalistic — no worker control
1.
Striking prohibited
2.
Grievances addressed to the state
Lázaro Cárdenas in Mexico
1.
Humble beginnings, unlike Vargas or FDR
2.
Fought in the Revolution
3.
Became governor of Michoacán, his home state
4.
Ran for president unopposed as Revolutionary party’s candidate
1.
Campaigned across the country
2.
Made a point to visit small villages
5.
Distributed nearly 45 million acres of land, as much as previous twenty-four
years put together
6.
Supported labor, defended right to strike
1.
Led to major international confrontation in 1938
2.
Striking workers were employed by U.S. and British companies
3.
Companies and strikers submitted to Mexican government for
arbitration
1.
Arbitrators awarded workers increased pay and social services
2.
Foreign firms refused to comply
3.
Mexican supreme court upheld decision
4.
Companies continued to stonewall
4.
4. Cárdenas expropriated the oil companies under Article 27
1.
Mexicans voluntarily contributed to help government
compensate the companies
2.
Seen as a “declaration of economic independence”
3.
Gave rise to national oil company, PEMEX
5.
5. Britain cut off diplomatic relations
FDR’s “Good Neighbor Policy”
1.
Need for Latin American allies in unstable 1930s
2.
1933, Pan-American Conference
1.
United States forswears intervention in Latin America
2.
Cuba and Panama would no longer be protectorates
3.
Rise of “Good Neighbor” movies
1.
Carmen Miranda
2.
Disney’s “Three Caballeros”
World War II
1.
All countries of Latin America joined the United States as allies in World War II
1.
Central American and Caribbean countries among first to join
1.
Rafael Trujillo of the Dominican Republic
1.
(i) Petty dictator supported by United States
2.
(ii) “He’s our bastard”
2.
6.
2. Chile and Argentina were aloof, with large population of immigrants
from Italy, Germany
3.
Brazil was greatest ally
1.
“Bulge of Brazil” was of great strategic importance
2.
Vargas allowed construction of U.S. bases and airstrips
3.
Brazilian infantry fought in Italy
4.
4. Mexican fighter pilots flew in Pacific
2.
War spurred ISI
1.
U.S. demand for agricultural exports increased
2.
United States and Europe still unable to produce industrial goods
3.
Demand up and competition low for Latin American industry
4.
Brazil, for example, enjoyed a huge trade surplus
Nationalism in 1945
1.
Cultural shift had taken place
1.
Rivera’s murals in Mexico’s government buildings
2.
Acclaim for Afro-Brazilian samba dancers
3.
Carlos Gardel
1.
Famed tango singer
2.
Popular throughout Latin America
3.
Career cut short by plane crash
4.
4. Gabriel Mistral
1.
Chilean poet
2.
First Latin American to win a Nobel Prize
2.
Many things remained unchanged
1.
Central America virtually untouched by benefits of nationalism
1.
Internal markets too small to support industrialization
2.
Land-owning oligarchies had not ceded control
2.
2. Guatemala
1.
German coffee growers had no interest in developing the
country
2.
Jorge Ubico
1.
(i) Classic neocolonial dictator
2.
(ii) Main concern was promoting “civilization” and
cultivating coffee
3.
(iii) Wanted to be closest U.S. ally
3.
United Fruit Company becomes single dominant economic
enterprise
3.
3. El Salvador represented “worst-case scenario”
1.
Dictator Maximiliano Hernández Martínez
1.
Brutally defended coffee production
2.
(ii) 1932 becomes known as the year of “the Slaughter”
3.
(iii) Most of the more than 10,000 victims were
indigenous
2.
Indigenous Salvadorans slowly gave up signs of their identity
4.
4. United States stopped nationalism in Central America and Caribbean
1.
Batista in Cuba
2.
Several rulers owed their power to U.S. intervention
1.
(i) Anastasio Somoza of Nicaragua
2.
5.
(ii) Trujillo of Dominican Republic
1.
(1) Motto: “God and Trujillo”
2.
(2) Major nationalist effort was massacre of
Haitian immigrants
5. Rhetoric often outran reality in nationalist countries
1.
Racism lingered
2.
Urbanization created shantytowns
3.
Rural areas of most countries saw no improvements
4.
Countries remained technologically behind Europe and United
States
Chapter 8
Revolution
I.
II.
Introduction
1.
Post-war Latin America
1.
Wartime industrialization slowed
2.
Population growth accelerated
1.
1900 – 61 million in Latin America
2.
1950 – 158 million
3.
1960 – 200 million
3.
Cities grow rapidly
1.
Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Buenos Aires, Mexico City, Havana, and
Santiago surpass 1 million
2.
Lima, Caracas, Bogota, and Recife reach 1 million by 1960
2.
Carolina Maria de Jesús
1.
Brazilian woman raising children in a shantytown in São Paulo
2.
Made 25 cents/day selling waste paper
3.
Wrote her thoughts in notebooks
4.
Discovered by a reporter who had her journals published
5.
Her journal became a bestseller around the world
6.
Exposed Brazil and the world to the realities of shantytowns
3.
Revolutionary option
1.
Many Latin Americans believed revolutionary change was necessary
2.
Revived accusations of U.S. imperialism
3.
Some joined nationalism with Marxism
4.
Populists looked to the common people without becoming Marxist
Post-World War II Populism
1.
Populism was a leadership style focused on:
1.
Mass politics
2.
Winning elections
2.
Voting changes in postwar Latin America
1.
Women’s suffrage
2.
Lowered voting age to 18
3.
Literacy requirements struck down
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
New populist leaders depended on a voting coalition of middle-class people and
industrial workers
1.
Populist political tactics
1.
Mass rallies
2.
Radio
3.
Bashed old hierarchies
4.
Attracted working-class voters with promise of improved living
conditions
5.
Avoided class warfare to maintain support of middle class
2.
Kept power from old power class of oligarchic and foreign interests
1.
Return of import-export economy threatened to empower oligarchs
2.
Populists had to win big among urban working class
ISI dwindles after World War II
1.
Latin American manufacturers need new machinery to compete with postwar
Europe
2.
Europe rebuilding factories
3.
Shortage of new machinery
U.S. economists recommend return to pre-1929 economy
1.
“Comparative advantage” – countries should embrace what they do best
1.
This would allow industrial countries to focus on producing finished
products
2.
This would lead to improved living standards everywhere
3.
“Developmentalist” approach
2.
Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLA)
1.
Set up by United Nations
2.
Raúl Prebisch
1.
Argentine economist
2.
“Guiding light” of ECLA
3.
Most influential Latin American economist
3.
3. Prebisch’s “Dependency” model
1.
Focused on “peripheral” position of Latin American economies
2.
Supply raw materials to dominant center of Europe and United
States
3.
Call to action for Latin America
4.
Focus on escaping the periphery
Post-war nationalists confronted difficult problems
1.
Social inequality
2.
Dwindling internal markets
3.
Resurgent pre-war oligarchy
4.
Hostility of United States
Peronism in Argentina
1.
Military governed Argentina through 1930
2.
Juan Perón was a nationalist army officer and Secretary of Labor
1.
Gained a strong following among the working class
2.
Removed from his position in 1945 amid fears of his popularity among
workers
3.
Workers staged a mass protest in Buenos Aires that became celebrated
as “Peronist Loyalty Day”
3.
4.
5.
6.
8.
Brazil
1.
2.
4.
Elected by a wide majority in 1946
Perón’s presidency, 1946–55
1.
Rapid unionization of the industrial workforce
2.
Raged at landowning class
Evita
1.
Eva Perón, wife of the president, became very popular
1.
Glamorous radio actress
2.
Grew up poor
3.
Came to Buenos Aires from the countryside, like many workers
had
4.
Became a relatable, beloved icon for Argentine workers
5.
Personally delivered aid from her Social Aid Foundation
2.
2. Helped reinforce patriarchal traditions
1.
Believed that a woman’s highest aspiration should be marriage
and motherhood
2.
Deferred to her husband as the leader, despite her popularity
3.
“Bridge of love between Perón and the people”
3.
3. Her death in 1952 prompted mass demonstrations of grief
Nationalism guided Peronist economics
1.
Sought to nationalize most foreign-owned companies
1.
Utilities
2.
Meat-packing plants
3.
Banks
4.
Insurance companies
5.
British-owned railways
2.
2. Expanded social services
3.
Expanded bureaucracy
4.
Five-year industrialization plan
1.
Financed at the cost of agricultural export sector
2.
Failure created an economic downturn
5.
5. Conflict with the Vatican undermined middle class support
Perón exiled by military in 1955
1.
Remained popular even from exile
2.
In 1957, a quarter of electorate voided their ballots in response to his
urging
Vargas ousted by military in 1945
1.
Had already created conditions for his return by founding two political
parties
2.
Won presidency in 1950 as candidate of Brazilian Workers’ Party
3.
Committed suicide in office in 1954
New capital at Brazilia
1.
Ultramodern design
2.
Located in the sparsely populated interior, signaling a new frontier
3.
Design decided by international competition
4.
Made Oscar Niemeyer the best-known Latin American architect
5.
Inaugurated in 1960
6.
Period of great hardship
9.
III.
Mexico
1.
Institutional Revolutionary Party
1.
PRI established a single-party state with elections that the PRI always
won
2.
Claimed reverence for heroes of Mexican Revolution
3.
Social justice goals of Revolution were largely abandoned
2.
Industrialization continues
1.
Landowner power shattered
2.
PRI maintained loyalty from land reform under Cárdenas
3.
Government marketed food grown on ejidos
1.
Held food prices down
2.
Subsidized urban living standards
4.
4. Mexican currency was steady, in contrast to inflation elsewhere
5.
As in Brazil, economic pie grew, but was ill-distributed
Onset of the Cold War
1.
United States represents modern prosperity
1.
Postwar boom
2.
Most American consumer goods out of reach for Latin Americans
2.
Latin American disenchantment with United States
1.
Begins with Marshall Plan in 1947
1.
Huge investment in Europe to jumpstart economic growth
2.
Included some former enemies
2.
Latin American allies hope for similar aid
1.
Latin America receives only 2 percent of U.S. foreign aid in the postwar
period
2.
Europe and Asia were more strategically important
3.
Rio Pact in 1947, a permanent pan-American defensive alliance
3.
U.S.-Latin American economics
1.
U.S. market for agricultural products booms
2.
The few industries of Latin America were subsidiaries of U.S. companies
1.
Equipped with obsolete U.S. equipment
2.
Designed not to compete with U.S. companies
3.
Reinforced economic subordination
3.
United States pushes spread of free-market capitalism
1.
U.S. prosperity relied on expansion of capitalism
2.
Economic nationalism was threatening, un-American
4.
Organization of American States (OAS)
1.
Post-war United States was the scene of anti-communist panic
2.
U.S. policymakers view Latin American opposition as “creeping communism”
3.
OAS is a beefed-up version of the Pan-American Union
4.
Dictators allied with the United States overpowered opposition votes
1.
Trujillo of Dominican Republic
2.
Papa Doc Duvalier in Haiti
3.
Anastasio Somoza of Nicaragua
5.
Declaration of Caracas (1954)
1.
Declared Marxist ideology alien to the Western Hemisphere
2.
Marxist revolutions would be viewed as foreign invasions
5.
Venezuela
1.
2.
6.
7.
U.S.-endorsed dictator Marco Pérez Jiménez, host of 1954 Caracas meeting
Preferred him to the nationalist Democratic Action Party
1.
Winners of 1947 elections
2.
Too threatening to U.S. interests
3.
Pérez Jiménez makes DNP and communist party illegal
4.
Friendly to U.S. oil companies
Guatemala
1.
Voted against the Caracas Declaration
2.
Called for Latin American resistance to U.S. pressure
3.
United States invades Guatemala by proxy
1.
Equipped a force of mercenaries and political opponents
2.
Trained and armed by the new Central Intelligence Agency
4.
Guatemalan “decade of Spring”
1.
Between 1944–54
2.
Two democratically elected nationalist presidents
3.
Juan José Arévalo
1.
Formerly exiled university professor
2.
Elected 1944
3.
Advanced social security, a new labor code, new constitution
4.
Advanced “Spiritual Socialism”
5.
United Fruit Company concerned by advances in labor rights
4.
4. Jacobo Arbenz
1.
Army officer elected president at 37
2.
Began expropriating large estates
3.
Confiscated some land from United Fruit, foreign-owned
railroads
4.
Embraced some Marxist teachings
5.
Many of his government’s organizers joined the Communist
party
5.
5. Many U.S. policymakers had financial stakes in United Fruit
1.
Secretary of State John Foster Douglas
2.
CIA chief Allen Dulles
5.
Arbenz administration fears the army
1.
The army was far more conservative
2.
Arbenz government officials hope to arm a peoples’ militia to balance
the army
3.
Arranged a purchase of weapons from Czechoslovakia
6.
United States prepares a proxy attack
1.
Staged in Honduras
2.
Guatemalan army joined the invasion rather than defending it
3.
Arbenz overthrown
7.
United States declares the overthrow a victory for democracy
1.
Post-Arbenz military rule was brutal and violent
2.
Some U.S. policymakers question the decision to attack
Bolivia
1.
National Revolutionary Movement took power in 1952
2.
Equally nationalist, perhaps more Marxist than Arbenz in Guatemala
3.
United States maintained good relations and sent aid to MRN government
IV.
1.
Bolivia was farther from United States
2.
Less economic stake in Bolivia
3.
Communist party had little clout
4.
Bolivian wealth was based on tin mines
1.
Owned by three wealthy families who lived in Europe
2.
MRN support came from miners’ unions and their militias
3.
MRN nationalized the tin mines
5.
MRN began land redistribution
1.
Returned land to indigenous peasants
2.
More than a thousand families got titles to parcels of land
6.
Decreased the power of the Bolivian army
7.
Change affected the middle class
1.
Rising food prices
2.
Improved working conditions cut profits in mining sector
3.
Price of tin was low
8.
Conservative elements of MNR gain influence
1.
U.S. aid supports Conservatives
2.
U.S. “constructive engagement” was more useful than the intervention
in Guatemala
8.
Literature and the Cold War
1.
Neruda
1.
Most popular poet of twentieth-century Latin America
2.
Held diplomatic posts for Chile all over the world
3.
Devoted himself to revolutionary politics
4.
Elected Senator for Chile’s communist party
2.
Jorge Luis Borges
1.
Argentine writer
2.
Traveled and educated around the world
3.
Remained closely tied to Buenos Aires
4.
Blind for most of his life
5.
Used gauchos and poor neighborhoods of Buenos Aires as literary
motifs
6.
Supported the military in its struggle against Perón
7.
His right-wing politics may be the reason he never won the Nobel Prize
The Cuban Revolution
1.
Marxist perspective on the rise in Latin America in the 1950s
1.
Had little to do with the Soviet Union
2.
Marxist reading of capitalism seemed apt depiction of Latin American realities
3.
Leninist critique of imperialism rang true
4.
Marxist diagnosis of Latin America was injustice
1.
Pervasive injustice woven into society
2.
Revolution appeared to be the only solution
2.
Che Guevara
1.
Argentine medical student
2.
Attracted to Marxism in 1950s
1.
Believed that Latin American countries needed to band together to
overthrow the international imperialist economic system
2.
Traveled South America, witnessing poverty firsthand
3.
3.
Traveled to Guatemala to witness the reforms of Arbenz
1.
Fled to Mexico when Arbenz was toppled
2.
Considered himself a “soldier of America” and Marxist revolutionary
3.
Met Fidel Castro in Mexico
Fidel Castro
1.
Cuban nationalist revolutionary
2.
From a wealthy, sugar-growing family
3.
Inspired by nationalist student movements of Cuba
1.
Strong anti-imperialist sentiment
2.
Traveled to Bogota in 1948 to protest U.S. imperialism at OAS meeting
4.
Exiled from Cuba along with his brother Raúl
1.
Organized against Fulgencio Batista, another U.S.-supported dictator
2.
Launched a disastrous attack on the Cuban military
3.
Freed from prison by Batista, and fled to Mexico
5.
Led an attack on Cuba from Mexico in 1956
1.
Eighty-two invaders arrived by boat
2.
Many were idealistic, middle-class youth
3.
Attacked by army upon landing
4.
Only a handful survived
5.
Twelve fighters became legendary due to the comparison with Christ’s
twelve apostles
6.
FidelCastro, Che Guevara, and Raúl Castro led guerrilla actions from the
mountains
1.
Played hide-and-seek from the military
2.
Gained sympathy in United States through articles written about them
in the New York Times
3.
Opposition to Batista grew nearly unanimous in Cuba
4.
Batista fled on New Year’s Eve, 1958
5.
Bearded guerrillas entered Cuban cities
7.
Tumultuous arrival in Havana
1.
Revolutionaries did not shave beards or change from their uniforms
2.
Often dispensed violent revolutionary justice against members of the
old government
3.
Castro maps out vision for Cuba in long, televised, public speeches
4.
Land reform began almost immediately
8.
U.S. state department concerned about threat of Communism
1.
Castro was not close with Cuban Communist Party
2.
Marxist inspiration for his proposals was clear
9.
Castro refused to appease United States’ concerns
1.
Gave a lecture on U.S. imperialism in New York City
2.
Began arranging an alternative Russian market for Cuban sugar
3.
Bought Russian oil at a cheap price
1.
U.S. refineries refused to process the Soviet oil
2.
Castro expropriated refineries in response
4.
4. United States stopped purchases of Cuban sugar
5.
Cuba responded by expropriating more U.S. property
1.
Sugar mills
2.
Mines
3.
Telephone and power companies
6. United States declared an embargo on Cuba in 1960
Cubans learn of an army being trained by the United States for a proxy
invasion
Bay of Pigs invasion 1961
1.
Cuban army was created by and loyal to Castro
2.
Quickly defeated the invasion
3.
Cuban alliance with Soviet Union took shape as a defense against future
invasion
Cuban Missile Crisis
1.
1962 – U.S. spy planes photograph nuclear missile installations in Cuba
2.
United States issued ultimatum to Soviet Union to remove missiles or
there would be war
3.
Russia agreed to remove missiles in exchange for a promise to never
invade Cuba
4.
United States continued to make attempts on Castro’s life
Embargo
1.
United States blocked trade between Cuba and countries allied with
United States
2.
Crippled Cuban trade
3.
Cuba began trading primarily with Soviet bloc countries
Cuba becomes focal point of Anti-U.S. resistance
1.
Cuba expelled from OAS
2.
Becomes training ground for revolutionaries
3.
Moscow did not support Latin American revolutionary movements
4.
Che Guevara believed conditions for a revolution could be created
Che Guevara and Guerrilla Warfare
1.
Traveled to Bolivia to foment a revolution
1.
Fifty guerrillas, including many Cuban volunteers
2.
Bolivian peasants did not join the movement
3.
Bolivian army captured and executed Guevara
4.
Che became a hero throughout Latin America
2.
2. Frustrations in Cuba
1.
Difficulty implementing his socialist ideals
2.
President of the National Bank and Minister of Industry in Cuba
3.
Proponent of economic diversification and industrialization
1.
(i) Attempted “crash” industrialization
2.
(ii) Soviet promises of assistance went unfulfilled
Revolutionaries return to sugar
1.
Effort to harness sugar for the common good
2.
Attempt at a ten million-ton sugar harvest
1.
Middle-class volunteers cut sugar cane
2.
Dissent was not permitted
Tamara Bunke
1.
Later known by the pseudonym “Tania”
2.
Born in Buenos Aires, moved to East Germany
3.
Served as interpreter for Che Guevara in East Germany
4.
Traveled to Cuba to join work brigades, literacy campaign, militias
6.
7.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
V.
5.
Went alone to Bolivia to prepare groundwork for Che’s expedition
6.
Died, but became a heroic symbol all over the world
4.
Musical reverberations of revolution
1.
Violeta Parra
1.
Chilean woman
2.
Mother of the “new song movement”
3.
Older than most protesters
4.
Committed suicide in 1967
2.
Cuba eventually became center of “new song”
5.
The Cuban Revolution in power
1.
Worldwide symbol of resistance to U.S. power
2.
Important social achievements
1.
Increased literacy
2.
Medical care
3.
Improved housing
4.
Ended racist practices
5.
Became a leader in Latin American culture
3.
Revolution restricted civil liberties
1.
No freedom of speech
2.
Cubans not allowed to travel outside the country
Countercurrents: Liberation Theology
1.
The Catholic church played no major role in Cuban Revolution, and was marginalized
2.
By the 1960s, many priests became active in fight for social justice
1.
Father Camilo Torres
1.
From the Colombian upper class
2.
Taught sociology at the National University
3.
Advocated revolution
4.
Joined a guerrilla army and died fighting in 1966
3.
Religious revolutionaries saw Latin America similarly to Marxists
1.
Only a few joined revolutionary movements
2.
Most believed faith and good works were more powerful than guns
4.
Paulo Freire
1.
Inspiration for many religious revolutionaries
2.
Teacher of literacy among peasants of northeastern Brazil
3.
Developed a method of education called “consciousness raising”
5.
1968 Conference of Latin American Bishops
1.
Discussed Freire’s approach
2.
Agreed that Church should take a “preferential option for the poor”
3.
Discussed creation of “base communities” similar to Freire’s literacy groups
4.
Discussed liberating people from the “institutionalized violence” of poverty
1.
See hunger, disease, and ignorance as preventable
2.
Help unmask the seeming naturalness of these problems
3.
Undermine traditional hierarchy
5.
Ideology discussed at 1968 conference becomes known as “Liberation
Theology”
6.
Conservative reaction
1.
Conservatives accused followers of communism
2.
Exponents of liberation theology were never a majority of Catholic leaders
3.
4.
1978 Conference of Latin American Bishops
1.
New Pope John Paul II led the Vatican against liberation theologians
2.
Appointment of conservative bishops
3.
Official silencing of liberation theologians
Pope supported conservative archbishop against the Sandinista revoluti
Chapter 9
Reaction
I.
II.
Introduction
1.
Cuban Revolution was a sign of hope to revolutionaries and of danger to others
1.
Cuban government began training revolutionaries from other governments
2.
Had little to offer in arms or money
2.
U.S. policy encouraged a conservative counter-revolutionary reaction
3.
Soviet Union was not heavily involved outside of Cuba
1.
Nationalism remained the basis of Latin American revolutionary movements
2.
Soviet Union had little interest or presence
4.
Anti-communists nevertheless branded Marxist revolutionaries as foreign
National Security Doctrine
1.
Armed forces were the greatest ally of anti-communist efforts
1.
Alliance between Latin American militaries and United States forged during
World War II
2.
In post-war era, alliance became explicitly anti-communist
3.
School of the Americas for counter-insurgency
4.
National Security Doctrine
1.
Latin American militaries are key U.S. allies in defense of the “free
world”
2.
Counterinsurgency is their special role
3.
U.S. power will handle communist invasions from abroad
4.
Latin American militaries should handle internal “enemies of freedom”
5.
U.S. alliance strengthened Latin American militaries
1.
Greater domestic power
2.
The appeal of an important mission in defense of freedom
3.
Rich and powerful friends within their home countries
2.
Alliance for Progress
1.
New U.S. aid program in response to Cuban Revolution
2.
Similar to the Marshall Plan for Europe
3.
Intended to reduce revolutionary pressure
1.
Stimulating economic expansion
2.
Political reform
4.
Kennedy declared reform necessary to prevent revolution
5.
Alliance for Progress failed to make serious reforms
3.
Momentum toward revolution seemed to grow in the 1960s
1.
Marxism was the most popular political philosophy among students and
intellectuals
2.
Revolutionary filmmaking
III.
1.
New Cinema in Brazil
2.
Cuban film industry
3.
Novelistic Boom
1.
Gabriel García Márquez
1.
Colombian author
2.
Close friend of Fidel Castro
3.
One Hundred Years of Solitude climaxes with massacre of
workers striking against a U.S. banana company
2.
2. Mexico’s Carlos Fuentes
3.
Peru’s Mario Vargas Llosa
4.
Latin American militaries reacted with violence and brutality
1.
Widespread use of kidnapping, torture, and murder
2.
Targeted anyone suspected of sympathizing with revolutionaries
5.
Urban guerrilla movements
1.
Relied on secrecy and hiding in plain sight
2.
Prompted especially brutal tactics to root out revolutionaries
1.
Repeated rape
2.
Being forced to watch torture of a loved one
6.
National Security Doctrine helped maintain the climate of emergency that produced
brutality
1.
Encouraged military to take an increasingly active role in national life
1.
Promoting economic development
2.
Public health
2.
Generals began to believe that civilian politicians were unnecessary
3.
Civil liberties hindered the generals’ efforts to crush opposition
7.
Juntas
1.
Executive committees of generals and admirals
2.
Came to rule many Latin American countries
3.
Impersonal nature of rule prompted the term “bureaucratic authoritarianism”
Military Rule
1.
Brazil
1.
Military fought alongside United States in World War II
2.
Armed forces went on red alert after Cuban Revolution
3.
Jõao Goulart, who took Ranieri Mazzilli’s place, was even more worrying
1.
Protégé of Getulio Vargas
2.
Inherited support of urban working class
3.
Fear of communism sent middle class to the right
4.
The new president redoubled efforts to appeal to workers
1.
Increasingly radical rhetoric from Goulart
2.
Foreign companies feared expropriation
3.
Economy stalled
5.
Peasant leagues demand land reform
1.
Landowners determined to fight reform
2.
Military becomes concerned about potential alliance of peasants and
workers
6.
Brazilian generals seize control of the government
1.
Support and knowledge of the United States
2.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
U.S. ambassador called the coup the “single most decisive victory for
freedom” of the era
Ruled by decree
1.
Outward appearance of constitutional government
2.
Changed inconvenient laws
3.
Decreed that their enemies had no political rights for ten years
4.
Two legal political parties, neither in opposition
5.
Decreed laws allowing them to legally dissolve congress
Rise of an opposition
1.
Urban guerrilla movements arose in the 1960s–70s
2.
The junta attacked them with out-of-uniform “death squads”
3.
Kept meticulous files on political prisoners
1.
Many detailed torture
2.
A bishop with ties to liberation theology was able to copy these
records
Currents within the military
1.
Moderate constitutionalists in power from 1964–67
2.
As opposition emerged, hard-liners took over
3.
Hard-line authoritarians dominated from 1968–74
4.
Right-wing nationalists in government sought to make Brazil a world
power
1.
Focused on roads and development in Amazonian region
2.
Feared that Brazil could lose that territory
Commitment to industrialization creates economic boom
1.
Protests subsided by mid 1970s
2.
Generals called it an economic miracle
3.
New industries could thrive at the expense of the poor
1.
Held down wages
2.
“Disappeared” anyone who complained
3.
Attract capital with “safe climate for foreign investment”
1.
(i) Low wages
2.
(ii) No strikes
3.
(iii) No expropriation
4.
(iv) Channel resources into aiding development
Most people got little benefit from economic “miracle”
1.
Heavy industry used little of Brazil’s unskilled labor
2.
Products aimed at middle-class market, which was a minority
3.
Government policies put money and credit in the hands of middle class
to purchase consumer goods
4.
The poorest half of the country saw only one-tenth of the income gains
between 1964–74
5.
Generals pursued greatness through dams, highways, bridges, airports
End of the miracle
1.
Government had relied on loans of petrodollars from oil-rich countries
to fund development
2.
International interest rates rose, creating a mushrooming international
debt
3.
By the early 1980s, Brazil had world’s largest foreign debt
4.
5.
6.
7.
2.
Brazil’s industrial exports surpassed coffee exports
1.
Appeared to be a nationalist dream
2.
Exports rose because so few Brazilians could afford the products
produced by Brazilian industry
5. Malnourished Brazil now a leading exporter of food
Massive strikes in São Paulo in 1978 announce return of opposition
Generals ready to bow out
Argentina
1.
In the early 1960s, Argentine generals were still dealing with Perón
1.
Ousted leader still directing his followers from abroad
2.
Generals looked to his working-class following with suspicion of Marxist
tendencies
3.
Military annulled Peronist electoral victories
2.
Brazilian armed forces set up bureaucratic authoritarian state
1.
Similar goals to Brazilian military rule
1.
Eliminate revolutionary threat
2.
Hold down wages
3.
Encourage investment
2.
2. Similarly brutal repression
3.
Argentine revolutionaries not easily repressed
1.
Relied on Peronist heritage, deep socialist, anarchist roots
2.
Argentina’s generals had no economic boom to weaken opposition
3.
Turned quickly to violence
4.
Dirty War
1.
The killing began in the 1960s and escalated in the 1970s
2.
Made Brazilian violence look moderate by comparison
3.
Marxist guerrilla movements
1.
Mostly made up of young, urban, middle class, universityeducated
2.
Montoneros
1.
(i) Best-known guerrilla faction
2.
(ii) Many former Peronists
4.
4. Military death squads
1.
“Disappeared” more than 20,000 people
2.
Denied any knowledge of their whereabouts
5.
5. Dirty war continued even after military allowed Perón’s return
1.
Seemed less dangerous than the guerrillas
2.
Became president in 1973
3.
Died almost immediately
4.
His second wife, Isabel, ascended to presidency
5.
Peronist movement split in two
6.
6. New military president in 1976
1.
Counterinsurgency moved into high gear
2.
Military exterminated its opponents
3.
Announced victory of “Judeo-Christian Civilization”
5.
Madres de la plaza de mayo
1.
Argentine mothers begin parading with pictures of their disappeared
children
2.
3.
4.
5.
Uruguay
1.
Relatively placid since World War II
1.
No Peronist-type opposition
2.
Between 1951–66, implemented Batlle’s idea of an executive
committee instead of a president
3.
High standard of living despite weak economic growth
2.
Tupamaro urban guerrilla movement
1.
Founded 1964
2.
Attempted to follow Che Guevara’s tactics, create a revolutionary
insurgency in Uruguay and then expand to surrounding countries
3.
Carried out daring attacks designed to attract public support
3.
Martial law declared in 1967
1.
Military began a gradual takeover
2.
Completed in 1973
3.
Annihilated its opponents
4.
By the end of the 1970s, Uruguay had more political prisoners by
proportion than any country in the world
Dictatorship Almost Everywhere
1.
Chile
1.
No Latin American country could match Chile’s record of constitutional
government
2.
Chilean Communist party was one of the oldest and strongest in the hemisphere
1.
Did not advocate armed revolution
2.
Participated in electoral coalitions with other leftist parties
3.
Salvador Allende
1.
As candidate of socialist-communist coalition, won a third of
presidential votes in 1958
2.
Medical doctor
3.
Marxist
4.
United States, alarmed by Allende’s popularity, made Chile a model for
the Alliance for Progress aid program
5.
Allende won the 1970 presidential election
4.
The “Popular Unity” government announced “Chilean road to socialism”
1.
New government hoped to achieve significant reform
1.
Nationalization of copper, coal, steel
2.
Nationalization of banks
3.
Land reform
2.
2. Proposals outran their electoral strength
1.
Combined conservative candidates had won 63 percent of the
vote
2.
Conservatives now allied against Popular Unity government
3.
CIA became a powerful supporter of Conservatives
1.
(i) Funneled money to Allende’s opponents
3.
IV.
Military dismissed them as crazy
Wore white scarves embroidered with the names of their children
The military, committed to traditional values, were unable to challenge
mothers and motherhood
The mothers became the conscience of the nation
2.
5.
6.
2.
Peru
1.
2.
3.
4.
Cuba
1.
2.
3.
4.
Mexico
(ii) Adopted a policy that Allende be overthrown by a
coup
3.
(iii) Cut off international credit to Allende government
3.
3. Popular Unity government sought to raise living standards for poor
1.
Introduced price freezes
2.
Increased wages
3.
Prompted huge inflation
4.
Prosperous Chileans fought against Popular Unity
4.
4. Popular Unity maintained support of urban workers
1.
Many believed the government had been too timid
2.
Moved to nationalize factories
3.
Allende insisted on working within constitutional restrictions
4.
Nationalization of copper was popular
5.
National Unity won a larger share of votes in 1971 mid-terms
elections
Military coup on September 11, 1973
1.
Allende died under attack in the presidential palace
2.
Bloodiest takeover in the history of Latin America
3.
Thousands of Popular Unity supporters were herded into the Santiago
soccer stadium, many murdered
4.
Thousands disappeared and tortured
5.
Military ruled by decree for 17 years
6.
Supported by U.S. State Department
1.
Carter administration was an exception
2.
Supported human rights as a part of foreign policy
Augusto Pinochet
1.
Military dictatorship of Chile was basically a bureaucratic authoritarian
regime
2.
General Pinochet had more personal power than other leaders in Brazil
or Uruguay
Military government was not motivated by anti-communism
1.
Government announced a military program that was neither communist
nor capitalist
2.
Program to serve poor and marginalized
1.
Agrarian reform
2.
Nationalization of oil and other industries
3.
Raised indigenous Quechua language to co-official language
with Spanish
Ruled from 1968–80
1.
Difficult to categorize in Cold War terms
2.
Was not guilty of heinous human rights violations
Revolutionary government supported Peru’s dictatorship
Authoritarian regime similarly supported by military
Prioritized improving the lives of the poorest
Did not commit the massive human rights violations seen elsewhere
1.
2.
V.
Bucked military trend entirely
PRI (Institutional Revolutionary Party), although revolutionary only in name,
used revolutionary themes
1.
Maintained revolutionary legitimacy
2.
Patronage maintained support of key constituencies, like workers and
rural poor
3.
Oil boom allowed PRI to absorb challenges
4.
Massacre of protesting students in 1968 is an example of state panic against
opposition
The Last Cold War Battles: Central America
1.
Revolutionary tide began turning in late 1970s
1.
Bureaucratic authoritarian governments began to fall
1.
Inflation
2.
Excessive debts
3.
Success of anti-communist efforts
2.
Falklands/Malvinas War
1.
Argentine military makes a bid for nationalist glory
2.
Attack on the British-controlled islands off Argentine coast
3.
Considerable popular support
4.
Argentine soldiers were quickly defeated
5.
Military government succumbed to elections
3.
Uruguay, Brazil, Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru gain civilian governments
2.
Central American nations had barely felt benefits of ISI
1.
Depended on a few agricultural exports
2.
Small populations and small cities
3.
Power of landowners had remained unchecked
4.
Dominated by rural oligarchies long after other Latin American countries had
overthrown them
5.
Ruled by greedy tyrants who enjoyed U.S. support for their anti-communism
3.
Guatemala
1.
Ruled by military or military-controlled governments since 1954
2.
Landowners lived in fear of peasant uprisings
3.
Guatemalan military carried out a dirty war against rural guerrillas and other
opponents
1.
Indigenous peasants herded into “model villages” that served as rural
concentration camps
2.
United States deemed this “low-intensity conflict”
4.
Rigoberta Menchú
1.
Cuiché Maya woman
2.
Her father became a peasant organizer; her brothers joined the guerrilla
movement
3.
Influenced by liberation theology
4.
Became a powerful spokesman for indigenous peasants
5.
Won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1992
6.
I, Rigoberta Menchú became a crucial book for understanding
Guatemala’s conflict
1.
It was later revealed that she had merged her stories with those
of other members of her community
2.
4.
5.
Controversy did not diminish the impact or accuracy of her
account
5.
Guatemalan death toll spiraled to 200, 000, with 95 percent annihilation
committed by the military
Costa Rica
1.
Largely escaped the violence of the Cold War
2.
Less burdened by colonial hierarchies
1.
Small pre-conquest indigenous community
2.
Remaining people killed by conquerors
3.
Abolished the army in the 1940s
Nicaragua
1.
Home of the famous anti-imperialist Augusto Cesár Sandino
2.
Ruled by the Samoza family since the 1930s
1.
Somoza dynasty had its origins in U.S. intervention against Sandino
1.
Anastasio Sandino headed the National Guard
2.
Major qualification was that he spoke English
3.
Assassinated Sandino
4.
Used National Guard to take over the country
2.
2. Various Somozas ran the country from the 1930s–1970s
3.
Staunch anti-communist allies of the United States
4.
Strongly supported by the United States
5.
Anastasio Somoza’s son, also Anastasio, ruled the country in the 1970s
1.
West Point graduate
2.
Head of U.S.-armed and trained National Guard
6.
6. Somoza family controls about a fifth of the country’s best land
3.
Revolutionary movement forms in Havana in 1961
1.
Movement named itself the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN)
2.
Fought the Somoza government into the 1970s
4.
Dictator assassinated Joaquín Chamorro in 1978
1.
Chamorro was the editor of a conservative opposition newspaper
2.
Assassination brought Nicaraguans together in opposition to Somoza
3.
Widespread revolution began, with the Sandinistas at the fore
5.
Somoza fled
1.
Took refuge in Miami, then in Paraguay
2.
Assassinated by Argentine guerrillas in Paraguay
6.
Sandinistas took control of Nicaragua
1.
Revolutionary program inspired, aided by Cubans
1.
Effort at full literacy
2.
Public health
3.
Cuban teachers, doctors, and other aid arrived
4.
Western European countries also offered support
5.
U.S. president Jimmy Carter offered tentative support
7.
Reagan elected in United States
1.
Reagan viewed Sandinistas as part of Cold War communist threat
2.
Anti-U.S. rhetoric of Sandinistas accelerated conflict
8.
Anti-Sandinista factions regroup
1.
Somoza’s National Guard reforms in Honduras
1.
CIA begins assisting National Guard
2.
6.
Argentine military dictatorship sends trainers, known as
“Contras”, for counterrevolutionaries
2.
2. Actions of Contras
1.
Raided Nicaragua from Honduras
2.
Called “Freedom fighters” by Reagan
3.
Honduras filled with U.S. military personnel and supplies
4.
Contras gained recruits among Nicaraguan opposition
5.
Unable to hold territory, Contras disrupted Nicaraguan
economy and wreaked havoc
9.
The war destabilized Nicaraguan economy
1.
Sandinista government devoted attention and money to internal
defense
2.
United States mined Nicaraguan harbors to cut off trade
3.
By 1988, Nicaragua had double-digit inflation
10.
In 1990, Sandinista Daniel Ortega lost election
1.
Violeta Chamorro, widow of assassinated newspaper editor, became
president
2.
First elected female president in Latin America
El Salvador
1.
Undemocratic, anti-communist government
1.
Through 1960s and 70s
2.
Landowning oligarchy by a cluster of families
2.
Miseries of the landless poor made El Salvador a social pressure cooker
1.
Indigenous communities had been pushed off of good agricultural land
by the Spaniards
1.
Moved onto volcanic slopes
2.
Coffee growers bought indigenous people off the volcanic land
3.
Indigenous Salvadorans became labor peons on their former
land
2.
2. Too many workers and low wages
3.
Rural poor began to starve
3.
Salvadoran communist party
1.
Slowly became strongest in Latin America
2.
Uprising crushed in “Slaughter of 1932”
4.
Military governments followed for nearly fifty years
5.
In the 1970s, the Salvadoran church turned away from anti-communism
1.
Embraced liberation theology’s “preferential option for the poor”
2.
Archbishop Oscar Romero
1.
Conservative enough to be appointed by the Vatican
2.
Death squads targeted nuns and priests who worked with the
poor
3.
Spoke out against the army
4.
Assassinated in 1980 as he celebrated Mass
6.
Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front
1.
Named for communist organizer of the indigenous uprising of 1932
2.
Received some meager aid from the Sandinista government of
Nicaragua
3.
VI.
Reagan administration argued that communism was spreading from
Cuba to Nicaragua to El Salvador
7.
Military murders of four nuns from the United States
1.
Prompted first major opposition to U.S. policy in Latin America
2.
Americans were concerned that U.S. weapons were being used for
heinous acts
8.
FMLN successes
1.
FMLN held large portions of countryside
2.
Strong backing among rural people, especially along the Honduras
border
3.
Blew up bridges and power lines
4.
Levied war taxes on vehicles travelling through their territory
9.
FMLN unable to defeat the army
1.
Salvadoran military had U.S. troops and training
2.
Helicopters
3.
Massacre at El Mozote
1.
U.S.-trained battalion killed men, women, and children in the
village of El Mozote
2.
El Mozote was not a guerrilla base
3.
Many families had recently converted to U.S.-oriented
Protestantism
4.
Probably favored the government over guerrillas
10.
Hundreds of thousands fled El Salvador, many for the United States
11.
FMLN refused to participate in elections, believing them fraudulent
1.
Anti-communists won repeated reelection
2.
Elections guaranteed them continued U.S. aid
3.
As death toll rose, anti-communist electoral strength grew
12.
War reached a stalemate in 1990
13.
Peace treaty signed in 1992
Countercurrents: La violencia, Pablo Escobar, and Colombia’s long torment
1.
Colombia became the third most populous Latin American country in the 1990s
2.
Its politics were often exceptional
1.
Conservatives, rather than Liberals, ruled during the neocolonial period
2.
Colombian military never ruled during the Cold War
3.
Avoided debt and inflation in the 1980s
4.
Guerrilla activity expanded in Colombia while ending elsewhere
3.
Unusual level of violence in Colombian countryside since 1940s
1.
Assassination of populist leader Jorge Elécer Gaitán
2.
Period after the assassination known as “La Violencia”, lasted into the 1950s
3.
Less about politics, more about socioeconomic violence in countryside
4.
Many fled the countryside for the cities
5.
Violence increased even in petty street crime
6.
Death rates began to set records for a country not at war
4.
Pablo Escobar
1.
In context of La Violencia lawlessness, Escobar began smuggling drugs to the
United States
2.
Created a mafia empire and became a powerful leader of organized crime
3.
Medellín cartel centered in Colombian city of Medellín
4.
5.
5.
Easy money added to the violence
Colombian-grown marijuana
1.
Higher quality than Mexican
2.
Dominated the market in the 1970s
6.
Cocaine
1.
Grown in Peru or Bolivia
2.
Refined in and exported from Colombia to United States
3.
Great wealth of traffickers translated into power and influence
Rural guerrilla armies
1.
Born out of La Violencia
2.
FARC and others see themselves as Marxist revolutionaries
3.
Nineteenth of April Movement
1.
Stole the sword of Bolívar and used it to symbolize new revolution
2.
Carried out spectacular attacks for public relations purposes
1.
Took over the embassy of the Dominican Republic during a
party, holding diplomats hostage for two months
2.
Seized Supreme Court building in 1985
1.
(i) Government sent a tank in
2.
(ii) 95 civilian deaths
3.
(iii) All 9 justices killed
4.
Conflict escalates
1.
FARC and another guerrilla group, ELN, force landowners to pay war
taxes
2.
Landowners create forces to fight the guerrillas
3.
Rural people caught in the middle
1.
Risked death at the hands of paramilitaries if they helped
guerrillas
2.
Risked death from guerillas if they refused to help
4.
4. Guerrillas turned to kidnapping as a source of funds
1.
Began abducting children of wealthy traffickers
2.
Traffickers struck back with massive violence
3.
Traffickers escaped arrest by killing any judge who issued a
warrant against them
5.
Narco-terrorism
1.
Escobar resorted to narco-terrorism when threatened with extradition
to the United States
2.
Truck bombs exploded in city streets
3.
Supporters of extradition were kidnapped or murdered
6.
Escobar offered to surrender in exchange for non-extradition pledge
1.
Deal made in 1991 for his surrender
2.
Lax conditions of his imprisonment allowed Escobar to continue running
his operation
3.
Escobar escaped prison
4.
Killed by police while on the run
7.
Drug trade became a source of income for guerrillas
1.
Threatened greater escalation of violence at the end of the millennium
2.
Colombian government became world’s third largest recipient of U.S.
aid
3.
Failed negotiations with guerrillas leads to election of hard-liner Alvaro
Uribe as president
Chapter 10
Neoliberalism
I.
Latin American Politics Moved Away from Nationalism in the 1990s
1.
Marxist revolutionaries had been strongly nationalist
2.
Reactionary dictatorships had also had strong nationalist inclinations
3.
Revolutionary and reactionary violence discredited nationalism
2.
Liberalism returned to fill the vacuum
1.
Neoliberals emphasized free trade, export production, and comparative
advantage
2.
Neoliberalism reigned supreme at the turn of the millenium
3.
Fernando Henrique Cardozo
1.
Formerly Marxist sociology professor
2.
Elected president of Brazil as a neoliberal
4.
Carlos Menem
1.
Former Peronist president of Argentina
2.
Became a neoliberal
5.
PRI presidents of Mexico embraced neoliberalism
1.
Carlos Salinas and Ernesto Zedillo governed for the PRI in the 1990s
2.
Both had training in neoliberal economics at Ivy League universities
3.
Neoliberals embraced the free market and rejected nationalism
1.
Sold off, or privatized, state-run corporations
2.
Privatized social services
3.
Slashed import tariffs that nationalists had used to protect local industry
4.
Deregulated capital flows, from which nationalists had limited the profits
multinational corporations could take out of the country
5.
Reduced subsidies on basic foodstuffs
6.
All-out assault on inflation
4.
Neoliberals gained momentum by taming the 1980s debt crisis
1.
Debt had grown huge in 1980s
1.
High oil prices
2.
Heavy short-term borrowing in the 1970s
3.
Mexico and Brazil temporarily stopped payments in 1982
4.
Short-term loans had to be refinanced at higher rates
2.
Latin American debts were external – owed to foreign banks
1.
External debts of the region rose from $105 billion (1976) to $397 billion
(1986)
2.
Brazil and Mexico owed the most
3.
Defaulting on debt would leave either country bankrupt and isolated
5.
Foreign lenders encouraged neoliberal policies
1.
International Monetary Fund believed the solution lay in neoliberal reforms
2.
Foreign lenders rolled over debts into long-term bonds to encourage neoliberal
reforms
1.
2.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Borrowing countries were now able to make payments
IMF insisted on neoliberal reforms in this arrangement
1.
Cuts in social spending
2.
The poor felt the pinch of this “belt-tightening”
Strategies successfully tamed debt
1.
Hyperinflation was halted in Argentina and Brazil
2.
Latin America was heralded as an emerging market for investment
3.
Billions of dollars in foreign capital flowed in
Free trade agreements
1.
North American Free Trade Agreement (1994) becomes linchpin of Mexican
neoliberalism
2.
Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay create a free trade agreement
(MERCOSUR)
Tariff reductions reduce prices for consumer products
Maquiladora
1.
Assembly plants using cheap, often women’s, labor to assemble imported parts
2.
Facilitated by low tariffs
3.
Maquiladoras in Mexico might receive parts from Asia, and then send the
product across the border to the United States for sale
4.
Workers had few rights
1.
Women who became pregnant were often immediately fired
2.
Low labor costs were the chief reasons for maquiladoras’ locations in
Latin America
3.
Neoliberal governments held wages down even as social services were
cut
Chile was a neoliberal success story
1.
Neoliberal reforms began under the Pinochet dictatorship
2.
Advised by “Chicago Boys” — economists from the University of Chicago
3.
By the 1990s, Chile had low inflation, good credit, steady growth and diversified
exports
4.
Growth had benefitted all classes somewhat
5.
Distribution of wealth remained among the most unequal in the region
Neoliberalism benefitted middle-class consumers but hurt producers
1.
The poorer majority of Latin Americans did not benefit from access to consumer
products
1.
U.S. economy produces $46,000 per person
2.
Brazilian, Mexican, Argentine economies only $8,000
3.
Bolivian and Honduran economies only $2,000
2.
Collapse of local industry created unemployment or long-term
underemployment
Social consequences of neoliberal reforms
1.
Dismantling of bureaucracies left many without employment
2.
Providing water and electricity to poorest areas was not profitable
Neoliberalism replayed patterns of pre-nationalist liberal era
1.
Mexican neoliberalism
1.
PRI technocrats in Mexico were similar to Díaz’s científicos
2.
PRI began to rehabilitate Díaz in Mexican textbooks
3.
Textbooks also downplayed revolutionary heroes like Zapata
14.
15.
Challenges to neoliberalism
1.
Zapatistas
1.
On the day NAFTA went into effect, a group using Zapata’s name
rebelled in Mexico
2.
Mayas from southern Mexico
3.
Immediate demands related to land, but had a broader vision
4.
Subcommandante Marcos
1.
Mysterious, masked leader
2.
Image appeared on t-shirts all over Mexico
5.
Media-savvy movement
1.
Website
2.
Mobilized supporters all around the world
3.
International observers witnessed state violence in Mayan
towns
6.
Government armed anti-insurgent militias
7.
Support of Catholic church in Chiapas province
2.
Shining Path
1.
Insurgency in the Peruvian highlands
2.
Charismatic leaderAbimael Guzmán
3.
Drew heavily on indigenismo
4.
Quasi-religious spirit led to cataclysmic violence
5.
Gained strong following in the indigenous Andes
6.
Followed indigenous migration into Lima
7.
Began supporting coca production as a means of financing revolution
8.
Lost momentum after its leader’s capture in 1992
3.
Indigenous movements
1.
Both Zapatistas and Shining Path were focused on indigenous
communities
2.
500th anniversary of Colombus’ landing in 1492 prompted international
indigenous meeting in Bolivia
1.
Demanded access to good land
2.
Autonomy to preserve indigenous culture
3.
Indigenous movement reflected multiculturalist intellectual trend
4.
Indigenous collided with strong legacies of nationalism
1.
Celebration of mestizo identity remained a bedrock of national
identities in Latin America
2.
Mestizo nationalism sometimes obscured or co-opted persistent racism
3.
Mestizo nationalism sometimes led to racism
1.
In Mexico, mestizos were considered more Mexican than
indigenous
2.
In the Dominican Republic, ideology of racial mixture could
discriminate against Afro-Dominicans
3.
In Central America, people were pushed to abandon indigenous
identity for national identity
Effort to advance civil rights of black Brazilians encountered nationalist resistance
1.
Nearly half of Brazilians are of pure or mixed African descent
2.
This group is also disproportionately poor
3.
16.
17.
Brazil’s Unified Black Movement (MNU) formed in 1978 to mobilize AfroBrazilians against racism
1.
MNU gained little support among poor Brazilians
2.
Mestizo nationalism had been very powerful
4.
Ideal of “racial democracy” had been a keystone of national identity since 1930s
1.
Welcome reprieve from racism and white supremacy
2.
Incorrectly suggests an absence of racial discrimination
Latin America changed since previous liberal era
1.
Latin Americans honored non-European cultural heritage
2.
Transculturation gained strength in Latin American cultures
1.
Capoeira, an Afro-Brazilian combination of dance and martial arts, has
adherents worldwide
2.
Latin American variants of west African religions
1.
Frequently involve a pantheon of gods associated with
particular qualities
2.
Santaría in Cuba
3.
Umbanda in Brazil combines African and European elements
4.
Umbanda and Candomblé in Brazil include moments of spirit
possession
1.
(i) In Candomblé, these forces are interpreted as African
gods
2.
(ii) In Umbanda, they are Brazilian spirits
3.
(iii) Many new converts to Umbanda are middle class
and white
3.
Rise of Protestantism
1.
Notably in Brazil, but also from Chile to Guatemala
2.
Fastest rising groups are Pentecostals and other U.S.-based
movements
3.
Mormon church sends out waves of missionaries
4.
Some Latin American countries will soon be a quarter
Protestant
Latin Americans growing in number in the United States
1.
Now the country’s largest minority group
1.
“Latino” means little outside of the United States
2.
People of Latin American descent in United States are differentiated
along national, ethnic, racial lines
2.
Immigration is changing U.S. culture
1.
Spanish-language television, magazines
2.
Changing food culture and preferences
3.
Latin American dance
3.
Large-scale immigration poses challenges
1.
Many new immigrants from Latin America are going to places that have
not experienced past immigration
1.
Southeastern United States
2.
Dramatically reshaping cultures and populations
2.
Transformations caused by rapid immigration have created fearful
responses
1.
Imposing wall along Mexican border
18.
19.
2.
Proposed mass deportation
3.
At worst, scapegoating of immigrants
4.
Efforts to limit education and health care
Environmental challenges in Latin America
1.
Environmental problems are worse in developing countries
1.
Avoiding or fixing environmental problems is expensive
2.
Allowing factories to pollute attracts investment
2.
Human activities have depleted the Amazon rainforest
1.
Relatively untouched until 1960s
2.
Brazilian government launched World Bank-funded development of
rainforest
1.
Roads, highways
2.
Hydroelectric dams
3.
Mines, which caused mercury poisoning
4.
Population of Amazon with “real Brazilians,” not indigenous
people
3.
Ecuadorian Amazon
1.
Oil drilling poisoned water
2.
Indigenous communities were destroyed
4.
Governments determined to develop the Amazon
1.
Point to U.S. development of its forested areas
2.
Rainforest environments are uniquely diverse and fragile
3.
Thin Amazonian soil quickly washes away, leaving cleared areas
unusable
4.
Northwest Brazilian state of Rodônia
1.
(i) Land given to poor settlers
2.
(ii) Less than a tenth of Rodônia became useable
farmland
3.
(iii) Most settlers gave up after two or three years
4.
(iv) Land sold to wealthy ranchers
5.
Ranching accounts for much of the deforestation
1.
Uses much land and little labor
2.
Ranchers are usually urban-based speculators
3.
Buy tracts of land, bulldoze, and then graze cattle until land
becomes unusable
4.
Sell the land and move on
Political pendulum swings back toward nationalism
1.
Neoliberalism was beginning to recede at turn of the millennium
2.
Mexico’s neoliberal president Carlos Salinas
1.
Universal disgrace for the corruption of his administration
2.
1994–95, worst economic crisis to hit Mexico in decades
3.
Urban delinquency was at a high, prompting mass protests
3.
Argentina imploded economically in 2001
1.
Instituted IMF-recommended reforms
2.
Defaulted on foreign debts
3.
Indigence and homelessness reached new heights in Buenos Aires
4.
Countries began to reject neoliberal model
1.
Many countries elected presidents with a nationalist bent
1.
2.
3.
5.
6.
7.
U.S. media characterized many leaders as “leftist”
Few turned toward socialist economic policies
Embraced nationalist vision of anti-imperialism and active
government
4.
Did not reject free market capitalism, but sought to mitigate its
impact within their borders
5.
By 2010, the presidents of most Latin American countries fit this
description
Luis Ignácio da Silva, or “Lula,” in Brazil
1.
Elected president in 2002
1.
Former metalworker and union leader
2.
Spent twenty years forging a grassroots labor party, the PT
3.
Won the presidency on his fourth try
2.
“Zero hunger” initiative to eliminate hunger in Brazil was difficult to
achieve given Brazil’s debts
3.
Approached his social goals more timidly than some of his supporters
liked
4.
“Family scholarship”
1.
Provided income support to families if they kept their children
in school
2.
Reduced poverty
3.
Encouraged poorer voters to re-elect Lula in 2006
5.
Brazilian economy was resilient in the face of 2008 economic crisis
Hugo Chávez
1.
President of Venezuela
1.
Former army officer
2.
First attempt to gain presidency of Venezuela was a 1992 coup
attempt
3.
Survived a 2002 coup attempt against his elected presidency
4.
Entrenched in power for more than a decade
2.
Channels support to poor Venezuelans as a form of patronage, in
exchange for support
1.
Poor have benefitted from Chávez policies
2.
Continue to support his presidency
3.
Use of government authority against his adversaries alienated the
middle class
4.
Won a referendum in 2009 allowing him to be reelected indefinitely
Evo Morales
1.
Took office in Bolivia in 2006
1.
Indigenous Aymara
2.
First indigenous president of Bolivia
3.
Headed a union of coca growers
1.
(i) Coca leaves are consumed by indigenous Bolivians
2.
(ii) Also used as a raw material for cocaine
2.
Resisted U.S. efforts to eradicate coca crops
3.
Base of support in Andean highlands
4.
Opposed by lowland eastern region around Santa Cruz
1.
Principal pole of economic growth
2.
8.
9.
Opposition also to the empowerment of indigenous
communities
5.
Morales oversaw a new constitution
1.
Significantly improves the lives of indigenous Bolivians
2.
Took effect in 2009
Mexico and Colombia remain exceptional
1.
Both governed by presidents with strong neoliberal orientations
2.
Close association with U.S. interests
Chile elected a leftist president in 2006, but she was replaced by a neoliberal
businessman in 2010