Alternative Sanitizers
Available for download at www.prozoneint.com
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Water Treatment Requirements
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Pool Water Treatment Requirements
Sources of Pollution
Bather Loading
•Sweat, Urine, Mucus
•Skin
•Fecal Matter
•Cosmetics
•Dirt
•All are pollutants by themselves and most contain microorganisms
Dirt (Other Sources)
•Dust
•Leaves, Grass, Soil
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Pool Water Treatment Requirements
Sources of Pollution
Bather Loading
•Sweat, Urine, Mucus
•Skin
•Fecal Matter
•Cosmetics
•Dirt
•All are pollutants by themselves and most contain microorganisms
Dirt (Other Sources)
•Dust
•Leaves, Grass, Soil
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Pool Water Treatment Requirements
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Pool Water Treatment Requirements
What are the Characteristics of a Good Treatment for Pool Water?
•Kills Organisms Quickly
•Stable in Water
•Produces no Harmful or Irritating Byproducts
•Stand Alone Treatment
•Kills Algae
•Removes Urea/Ammonia (Equivalent to Breakpoint Chlorination)
•Helps Reduce Bather Load
•Safe to Handle or Use
•Low Sensitivity to pH
•Low Sensitivity to Alkalinity
•Limited Effect on TDS
•Limited Effect on Pool Equipment and Structure
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Pool Water Treatment Requirements
•Disinfection only deals with a small portion of the water treatment
problem
•Alternative sanitizers are generally looked at as replacements for
chlorine
•Selection of an alternative sanitizer should be based on its
performing as many of the functions chlorine performs while
eliminating its undesirable characteristics
•Chlorines functions in water treatment can broadly be categorized
as:
Oxidation
Disinfection
Kills Algae
•Disinfection consumes very small quantities of chlorine, up to
90 percent is consumed in oxidation reactions
•Any chlorine substitute must have a means to oxidize water
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Why is Oxidation Important?
Oxidation
removes bather loading
Chlorine
is neutralized by bather loading causing the formation of
combined chlorines and chloramines (combined chlorines and
chloramines cause odors, irritation, and other undesirable effects of
chlorine, particularly when chlorine use is not managed properly)
•Bather loading can prevent sanitizers from attacking microorganisms by
providing a protective coating
•Bather loading provides the nutrients required by microorganisms to
reproduce and grow
•Destruction of volatile chemicals
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Pool Water Treatment Requirements
Chlorine Base Line
Oxidation Strength
High
Disinfection Strength
High
Kill Time
Fast
Stability
Varies
Organism Resistance
Yes
Major Byproducts
Chloramines, Combined Chlorines
Staining Potential
No
Solubility
High
Stand Alone
Yes
pH Dependent
Yes
Chlorine Shock Equivalent Yes
Algicidal Properties
High
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Chlorine Generators
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Chlorine Generators
Technology
Salt (NaCl) is added to the pool at concentrations varying from 2,500
ppm to 5,000 ppm. An electrolytic cell is added to the return and when
the salt water passes through it the usable form of chlorine is
generated.
Salt Water (Contains Chlorine Ions) + Electrical Energy →Useable
Chlorine
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Chlorine Generators
Chlorine Generator System Components
•Chlorine Generating Cell
Titanium or Titanium with Coating (Noble Metals)
One or Two Sided Cells Available
•Self-Cleaning Feature (Hard Water will Clog Cell)
•Power Supply
•Self-Cleaning Feature (Hard Water will Clog Cell)
•Displays and Controls (Various Options Available)
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Chlorine Generators
What are the Advantages of Chlorine Generation?
•Chlorine is generated on-site
•Provides all the treatment benefits of chlorine
•Eliminates handling of chemicals
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Chlorine Generators
Operational Considerations
•Corrosion can occur when excessive salt
concentrations are used
•Salt water can damage some pool surfaces
•Combined chlorines and chloramines still a potential
issue
•Dissimilar metals in immediate proximity to each other
with different electrical potentials can pose a problem
with high levels of salt
•Corrosion is commonly caused by low pH, low total
alkalinity, and soft water
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Ozone Generators
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Ozone Generators
Technology
Ozone is the most powerful disinfectant readily available. Because it is
a gas, it must be generated on-site with either specialized vacuum ultraviolet
lamps or an electrical arc (corona discharge). While typically classed as a
sanitizer, ozone’s biggest benefit comes from its oxidation power.
Oxygen + Energy (Light, Electrical) = Oxygen plus Ozone
Ozone is oxygen with an extra molecule of oxygen loosely attached
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Ozone Generators
Generation with Vacuum Ultraviolet Lamps
Air is passed over lamps which generate ultraviolet light at 185 nm. Some
of the oxygen molecules are split into two oxygen atoms which combine with
other oxygen molecules to form ozone.
O2 + VUV Light → O- +OO2 + O-→O3
The ultraviolet lamps used to generate ozone are not the same as those
used to generate ozone.
Outputs up to 1 lb-ozone per day
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Ozone Generators
Vacuum Ultraviolet System Components
•Ozone Producing Lamp(s)
•Ballast
Electronic-Provide best performance and lowest energy consumption
Magnetic
•Housing
•Compressor or Air Pump (Used for Specific Installations and
Circumstances)
•Installation Kit
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Ozone Generators
Equipment Types
Venturi Driven
•Relies on pressure differential created by the venturi to inject ozone into
water
•Typically specified for use in spas and residential pools
Compressor Driven
•Pressurizable lamp cartridges connected to diaphragm type air
compressors
•Specified for use in commercial spas and residential and commercial pools
(up to 1.2 million gallons)
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Ozone Generators
Ozone
Generator
Extended Contact Distance
Pool
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Ozone Generation with Corona Discharge
Ozone Generation with Small Corona Discharge Devices
Corona discharge devices can be divided into two categories: Type I and
Type II:
Type I Generators use equipment to pre-treat the feed air in order to
remove nitrogen (10 percent or less) and moisture (Relative Humidity of 78 deg F or better). Water or air is used to cool the ozone cell in order to
keep it below 100 deg F. They generate high concentrations of ozone and
are generally found only in commercial applications due to their cost.
Type II Generators are stripped down corona discharge devices. They
consist of a corona discharge cell or plate and have no provisions in place
to control the environmental factors which affect corona discharge ozone
production. Examples of this type of ozone generator are small CD
aquarium units, small CD spa units, and small CD air purifiers.
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Ozone Generators
Generation with Corona Discharge Equipment
Air which is dried, or air which is dried and passed through a device which
concentrates oxygen from the air is run through a high voltage arc (5,000
volts and up). The electrons in the field split some of the oxygen and the
individual oxygen atoms recombine with normal oxygen to produce ozone.
Concentrations are typically in the one (1) to ten (10) percent range.
O2 + High Energy Electrons → O- +OO2 + O-→O3
Outputs available up to thousands of pounds per day
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Ozone Generators
Corona Discharge Components
•Ozone Generating Cell (Air Cooled or Water Cooled)
•High Voltage Power Supply
•Oxygen Concentrator or Regenerative Air Dryer
•Compressor
•Options
Controls
Ozone Monitors
Contact Tanks
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Ozone Generators
Vacuum Ultraviolet
• Lower Cost
• Rugged
• Easy
Operation
• Lower ozone concentration
• Operation in almost any
environment
• High Reliability
Type I Corona Discharge
• High Ozone Outputs available
• High Ozone Concentrations
available
• Higher Cost
• More Complex
• Excellent Performance when
Properly Applied
• Required for Some
Applications
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Ozone Generation with Corona Discharge
Ozone Generation with Small Corona Discharge Devices
Ozone is generated by passing air through a high voltage arc. The arc
splits oxygen molecules in their normal state (O2) to form two atoms of
oxygen (O-). Nitrogen (N2) is also split into its constituent atoms (N2-).
O2 + Electron Energy → O- + OO- + O2 → O3
N2+ Electron Energy→N2-+N2N2-+O-→NOx
These reactions will occur anytime nitrogen is present with oxygen when
ozone is created using the corona discharge process. When a home type
corona discharge ozone generator is used, the quantity of nitrogen oxides
produced may equal or even exceed the quantity of ozone produced.
Nitrogen oxides convert to harmful compounds in the presence
of moisture including nitric acid which is extremely corrosive.
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Ozone Generation with Corona Discharge
Drawbacks of Type II Generators
Corona discharge devices operate best when the air is dried. When it is
not dry, ozone output decreases and the production of nitrogen
compounds increases. The chart below shows how ozone production
decreases as moisture content in the air increases (as shown by the
dew point temperature increase) and the formation of nitrogen
compounds increase. The chart cuts off at a dew point of -10 deg C (14
deg F), which is still drier than the air which will be found in almost any
spa or jetted tub installation in the US.
Decreasing Ozone
Production
Formation of
Nitrogen Compounds
Increasing
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Ozone Generation with Corona Discharge
Temperature Considerations with of Type II Generators
•The temperature of the ozone generating cell is controlled in Type I
Generators. In Type II Generators, there is no mechanism to control the
cell or plate temperature. Type II cell/plate temperatures easily reach
150 deg F (100 deg F is the standard limit). This is undesirable since the
destruction of ozone accelerates as temperature increases, reducing
outputs to negligible levels while the production of nitrogen compounds
continues.
•The lack of temperature and humidity control results in Type II generators
having erratic output, poor performance, and the production of toxic
nitrogen compounds.
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Summary of Ozone Generation
Performance Parameter
UV Ozone Systems
Type II CD
Steady Output
Yes
No
Produces Harmful Byproducts
No
Yes
Produces Nitric Acid
No
Yes
Impact of Increasing Humidity
None
Output Decreases
Impact of Increasing Temp
None
Output Decreases
High Voltage
No
Yes
Power Consumption
Low
Low
Open Arc
No
Yes
NOTE: Prozone utilizes Type I Corona Discharge technology in its
commercial grade equipment.
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Ozone Generators
What does it do?
Oxidation
•Ozone reacts with bather loading and combined halogens
•Reduces contaminants to inert compounds or carbon dioxide and water
•Oxidizes Combined Halogens
Precipitation
•Ozone removes metals (iron, manganese, zinc, copper, etc.)
•Oxidized organics also precipitate
•Filtration and clarification are enhanced by precipitation
Sanitation/Disinfection
•Ozone is the most powerful disinfectant available
•Rapidly kills bacteria and viruses
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Ozone Generators
What does it do?
•Destroys bacteria, viruses, and organisms
•Eliminates skin and eye irritations and hair damage
•Substantially reduces maintenance, time and cost
•Eliminates chlorine odor
•Reduces the need for chlorine
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Ozone Generators
Operational Considerations
Vacuum Ultraviolet Units
•Lamp Life – Units are typically good for 15-20,000 hrs
•Ruggedness – Better units will not break easily
•Units will work on pools up to 1.5 million gallons
•Units are designed to oxidize water primarily, with disinfection
as a secondary function
•Chlorine usage typically decreased anywhere from
40-60 percent
•Systems are easy to install, use and maintain
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Ozone Generators
Operational Considerations
Corona Discharge Units
•Pool type systems provide excellent performance
•Systems should be run with an oxygen concentrator or
regenerative air dryer
•Best for commercial type installations
•Increased complexity
•Easy to install, more difficult to maintain
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Characteristics of Ozone
Chlorine
Ozone
Oxidation Strength
High
High
Disinfection Strength
High
High
Kill Time
Fast
Fast
Stability
Varies
Generate
On-Site
Organism Resistance
Yes
No
Major Byproducts
Chloramines,
No
Combined Chlorines
Staining Potential
No
No
Solubility
High
High
Stand Alone
Yes
No
pH Dependent
Yes
No
Chlorine Shock Equivalent
Yes
Yes
Algicidal Properties
High
Medium
Sanitation*Oxidation
Ionizers
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Ionizers
Technology
Copper and silver (or zinc) ions are introduced into the water by erosion feeders
Or electrically with an anode/cathode system. Units can be installed in-line or
in a bypass configuration with erosion types typically being installed in-line
directly after the filter. Ionization systems provide sanitation (including action
as an algaecide only).
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Ionizers
Components
Erosion Type:
•Housing with media
•Flow control
Anode/Cathode Type:
•Power Source
•Electrode Chamber-Anode/Cathode, typically plated with same mixture
of copper/silver. Silver is usually one to ten percent of the plating with copper
comprising the balance
•Control-Typically an adjustable rheostat
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Ionizers
What does it do?
•Systems introduce silver and copper ions into the water
Ions are atoms with a positive or negative charge
Positively charged ions are typically metals
Negatively charged ions are typically non-metals (ie chlorine)
•Silver acts as a disinfectant and is typically dosed at 50-100ppb
•Copper acts as an algaecide and is typically dosed at .2 - .5 ppm
•Copper and silver essentially poison cells by disrupting their metabolism
•Neither copper or silver act as an oxidant
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Ionizers
What are the Advantages of an Ionizer?
•Copper is an effective algaecide
•Copper is very effective at killing mustard and green algae at
levels of .5-1 ppm
•Systems are easy to install
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Ionizers
Operational Considerations
•Ionizers do not oxidize the water
•Chlorine residual and shocking still required (silver and zinc are
slow acting relatively weak sanitizers)
•Ionizers using silver are incompatible with pools using bromide
or biguanides
•Copper can cause staining
Copper concentration approaches 1ppm
High pH
Chlorine or others strong oxidizers present in main body
of pool
•Testing limited to copper only (colorimetric type test)
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Characteristics of Ionizers
Chlorine
Ionizers
Oxidation Strength
High
None
Disinfection Strength
High
Low
Kill Time
Fast
Slow
Stability
Varies1
Stable
Organism Resistance
Yes3
Yes
Major Byproducts
Chloramines,
Copper Sulfate,
Combined Chlorines
Silver Carbonate
Staining Potential
No
Yes
Solubility
High
Low
Stand Alone
Yes
No
pH Dependent
Yes
No
Chlorine Shock Equivalent
Yes
No
Algicidal Properties
High
High
Sanitation*Oxidation
Ultraviolet Systems
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Ultraviolet Radiation
Technology
Water is exposed to high intensity ultraviolet (UV) radiation in specialized
chambers. The light is generated with specialized lamps that emit light
in the range between 245 nm and 285 nm, the optimal kill range for
microorganisms. Typically, the lamps will be classified as low or medium
pressure. Units are also available that emit light in a high intensity pulsed
manner.
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Ultraviolet Radiation
Components
•Specialized UV lamp (s)
•Ballast
Reactive (Magnetic)
Electronic
Electronic ballast offer better life, produce less heat, and use
less energy
•Reactor Vessel
•Additional Features
UV Sensors
Alarms
Automatic and Manual Cleaning Cycles
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Ultraviolet Radiation
What does it do?
•Ultraviolet (UV) irradiation of water is a sanitizing process
•Effectiveness is determined by UV dosage (D):
Intensity of Light (I)
Exposure Time (t)
D=I*t
•UV light damages the RNA and DNA within a microorganism
•Damaging the DNA/RNA inhibits cellular reproduction and
sterilizes the organism
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Ultraviolet Radiation
What are the Advantages of UV Radiation?
•Efficient at inactivating vegetative and sporous forms of bacteria
viruses and other microorganisms which pose a hazard in pools
Fairly low dosages required
Cryptosporidium requires much higher dosages
•Effectiveness is not limited by pH, temperature, or alkalinity
•Does not produce and harmful byproducts
•Fairly easy installation
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Ultraviolet Radiation
Operational Considerations
•UV does not provide any residual sanitation
•Effectiveness of system can be inhibited by:
Development of films on the lamps (Quartz fouling)
Dissolved organics (bather load)
Clumping of microorganisms
Lack of or a poor cleaning mechanism
Suspended solids
Poor water clarity
Poor reactor design
•Chlorine reduction is low and the devices do not reduce the
irritating aspects of chlorination
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Ultraviolet Radiation
Operational Considerations
•Shocking and chlorine residual required
•Lamp output may degrade over the life of the unit
•Cleaning process may be fairly involved
•Difficult to monitor intensity of UV radiation reliably
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Ultraviolet Radiation
Operational Considerations
UV has two special considerations which can potentially impact
performance:
•Dark Repair Mechanism – Organisms repair the the damage from UV
and become viable
•Photoreactivation -Some organisms (coliform indicators, Shigella) can
repair the damage from UV radiation and become viable again (viruses
and many bacteria cannot) after re-exposure to sunlight
Extent that these mechanisms are an issue is still an open question
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Characteristics of Ultraviolet Radiation
Chlorine
UV
Oxidation Strength
High
None
Disinfection Strength
High
Moderate-High
Kill Time
Fast
Moderate-Fast
Stability
Varies
Generate
On-Site
Organism Resistance
Yes
Yes
Major Byproducts
Chloramines,
No
Combined Chlorines
Staining Potential
No
No
Solubility
High
N/A
Stand Alone
Yes
No
pH Dependent
Yes
No
Chlorine Shock Equivalent
Yes
No
Algicidal Properties
High
Medium
Sanitation*Oxidation
Biguanides
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Biguanides
Technology
Biguanide is a polymeric liquid based disinfectant that is normally
combined with an algaecide, oxidizer, and shock compounds. The
liquid mixture is typically, there is a weekly routine and monthly routine
to follow.
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Biguanides
What does it do?
•Kills microorganisms
•Kills algae (with an algicidal additive)
•Oxidizes bather load (when an oxidizer is added)
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Biguanides
What are the Advantages of Biguanides?
•Easy to use
•Stable in water
•Relatively good performance
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Biguanides
Operational Considerations
•Requires multiple chemicals to actually treat the pool
•System does not provide the equivalent of a chlorine shock
•The most common oxidizer provided, hydrogen peroxide, is
hazardous to handle
•Can cause foaming and scum rings
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Characteristics of Biguanides
Chlorine
Biguanides
Oxidation Strength
High
None
Disinfection Strength
High
Moderate
Kill Time
Fast
Moderate
Stability
Varies
Stable
Organism Resistance
Yes
Yes
Major Byproducts
Chloramines,
None
Combined Chlorines
Staining Potential
No
Yes
Solubility
High
High
Stand Alone
Yes
No
pH Dependent
Yes
Yes
Chlorine Shock Equivalent
Yes
No
Algicidal Properties
High
Medium
Sanitation*Oxidation
Summary of Properties
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Pool Water Treatment Requirements
Chlorine
Ozone
UV
Ionizers
Biguanides
Oxidation Strength
High
High
None
None
None
Disinfection Strength
High
High
Moderate-High
Low
Moderate
Kill Time
Fast
Fast
Moderate-Fast
Slow
Moderate
Stability
Varies1
Generate
Generate
Stable2
Stable
On-Site
On-Site
Organism Resistance
Yes3
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Major Byproducts
Chloramines,
No
No
Copper Sulfate4,
None
Combined Chlorines
Silver Carbonate
Staining Potential
No
No
No
Yes5
Yes
Solubility
High
High
N/A
Low
High
Stand Alone
Yes
No
No
No
No
Yes
pH Dependent
Yes
No
No
No6
Chlorine Shock Equivalent
Yes
Yes
No
No7
No7
Algicidal Properties
High
Medium
Medium
High
Moderate
Notes:
•
Stability varies depending on the type of chlorine used. In general, calcium hypochlorite is the least stable form
of chlorine (except chlorine dioxide) followed by sodium hypochlorite and the stabilized chlorines
•
Silver may precipitate with recommended levels of carbonate. Copper ions tend to precipitate and the presence of
chlorine can precipitate copper oxides.
•
Ozone ruptures cell wall. Other treatments interrupt cellular metabolism which allows resistance to develop.
•
Copper sulfate can cause sever staining.
•
Copper may cause bluing of pool surface when copper ion precipitates or black staining when strong oxidzers are
present.
•
Staining potential increases in alkaline conditions
•
Hydrogen peroxide is normally used as an oxidizer. Hydrogen peroxide does nor provide equivalent of breakpoint
chlorination.
Combining Systems
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Selection Criteria for Combining Systems
•Systems should provide Oxidation and Disinfection
Capabilities
Remember, disinfection is relatively easy
The majority of work is done with oxidation
•Combined systems should compliment each other
Doubling-up on a function is generally not necessary
If you have a disinfectant, an oxidizer should be used as
a compliment and vice versa
•Provides residual disinfection
•Reduces or eliminates negative characteristics of chlorine
•Reduces Cost
•Improves Pool Water Quality
Typical Combinations
Systems
Notes
Ozone-Chlorine
Reduces chlorine consumption,
greatly improves water quality
Ozone-Salt Chlorine
Same as above, allows reduced
salt concentrations
Ionizer-Chlorine
Better control of algae
UV-Chlorine
Small reduction in chlorine
consumption
Biguanide-Oxidizer
No chlorine, does not provide
equivalent of breakpoint chlorination
for removal of ammonia