Biopsychology – branch of psych that analyzes how the brain
and neurotransmitters influence our behaviors, thoughts and
feelings.
Neuropsychologists – explore the relationship between
brain/nervous systems and behavior (also called biological
psychologists, biopsychologists, behavioral geneticists,
physiological psychologists)
Nervous System - part of the body that coordinates the voluntary
and involuntary actions of the animal and transmits signals
between different parts of its body
1) Central Nervous System –
2) Peripheral Nervous System – transmits information to and
from the central nervous system
a. Somatic nervous system – voluntary control of body
movements via skeletal muscles
b. Autonomic nervous system – involuntary and
unconscious workings of the body, like heart rate,
swallowing, pupil dilation, perspiration, respiratory rate
i. Sympathetic – activates “fight or flight” responses,
preps body for traumatic event, mobilizes the body
for action and energy output (think Superman)
ii. Parasympathetic – calms the body after it was
activated (think “for” calming =“para” in Spanish is
“for”
The Brain – What nervous system is it part of?
Ways to view the Brain:
CAT or CT scan – computerized axial tomography
Uses x-rays to create pictures of cross-sections of the body
MRI – magnetic resonance imaging – does not use radiation
uses powerful magnets and radio waves to create pictures of the body
Ways to measure the function of the brain:
EEG – electroencephalogram
PET scan – Position emission tomography
uses a radioactive substance called a tracer to measure activity of the body,
shows how organs function
www.dementiadiet.com
fMRI- functional MRI
Functional neuroimaging procedure using MRI technology that measures
brain activity by detecting associated changes in blood flow
Brain Lingo:
a. gyri – peaks in brain
b. sulci – valleys
c. Convolutions – part that is folded (or fissures/caverns of the
brain) = the greater the convolutions the greater the surface
area, Einstein’s brain revealed increased convolutions
“Einstein Literally Had Unusual Brain”
Major structures of the Brain:
1. Cerebrum: largest part of the brain, resp. for higher brain
functioning, most highly developed part of the brain
Makes up about two-thirds of the brain mass and lies
over and around most of the structures of the brain.
The outer portion (1/10 of an inch thick) of the cerebrum
is covered by a thin layer of gray tissue called the
cerebral cortex
*Much of our neural activity takes place in this part of the
cerebrum
*Contains 70% of the neurons in he central nervous system
*packed with over 10 billion nerve cells
Each hemisphere of cerebrum is divided into four lobes:
1. Frontal lobe- functions include intelligence, emotion,
personality, attention, concentration, judgment, body movement,
problem solving, speaking and writing
a. Broca’s Area – production of speech, located in the left
frontal lobe discovered by Paul Broca
* Persons with damage to Broca's area of the brain can
understand language but cannot properly form words or
produce speech.
b. Aphasia - a disorder caused by damage to the parts of the
brain that control language
* Possible causes include stroke, dementia, & brain
damage
* Brain Lesions- is an area of injury or disease within the
brain, caused by injury, infection, exposure to certain
chemicals, problems with the immune system, and more
c. Motor Cortex- one of the principal brain areas involved in
motor function / Located in the frontal lobe of the brain
It generates neural impulses that control the execution of
movement
2. Parietal Lobe- functions include sense of touch, pain, and
temperature
3. Occipital Lobe- functions include vision
4. Temporal Lobe – functions include speech (understanding
language) memory, hearing, sequencing, organizing
a. Wernicke’s Area – processing and understanding
language, located in the left temporal lobe, Neurologist Carl
Wernicke discovered the brain region
b. Aphasia – damage to the Wernicke’s Area results in
nonsensical speech pattern, lack of ability to comprehend
speech
The cerebrum is divided into right and left hemispheres that
are connected by the corpus callosum.
List some functions of each in your notes
Corpus Callosum - is a wide, flat bundle of neural fibers
beneath the cortex in the brain \ connects the left and right
cerebral hemispheres and facilitates interhemispheric
communication.
Contralaterality- one side of the body is controlled by the
opposite side of the brain
Example: if one has a stroke in their right hemisphere, they won’t be able
to move the ______________ side of their face.
“Girl Living With Half Her Brain” you tube
Split Brain Procedure is when he corpus callosum is severed, it
is used to treat and minimize epilepsy. If done before age 10 the
hemispheres of the brain learn to “communicate” in spite of split
Plasticity – brain reorganizes and learns to compensates for the
damaged or missing structures in the brain
Greater plasticity in early years! Plasticity diminishes with age.
“Split-brain patient 'Joe'
2. Limbic System: Evolutionarily primitive brain structures
located on top of the brainstem
Functions include emotions, motivations, and pleasure
particularly those that are related to survival (like fear,
anger, eating and sex) = “emotional brain”
Certain structures of the limbic system are involved in
memory as well
Functions of the Limbic System:
1) Thalamus – “switchboard” all sensory information enters
the brain through this structure
2) Hypothalamus – sex, eating, drinking, motivation and
emotion (linked to survival)
3) Amygdala – memories forming, recognizing and
remembering experiences
4) Hippocampus – transference of information into permanent
memory
3. Brain Stem – underneath the limbic system
Underneath the limbic system
Functions include: basic vital functions, like breathing, heart
rate, & blood pressure
Simplest part of the brain
Like structures make up the entire brain of more simple
creatures (reptiles)
1. Midbrain – visual and auditory reflexes, like turning your
head to a noise you hear
2. Pons- In Latin, the word pons literally means bridge.
Connects the cerebral cortex with the medulla oblongata
Helps in the transferring of messages between various parts
of the brain and the spinal cord, like controlling autonomic
functions, relaying sensory information between the
cerebrum and cerebellum, & sleep
3. Medulla- Controls autonomic functions (heart rate,
breathing, blood pressure, digestion), relays messages
between brain and spinal cord, coordination of body
movements, where most fibers cross, resulting in the
contralateral control



4. Reticular Formation – group of nerve fibers located inside
the brainstem
Arousal, Attention, Cardiac Reflexes, Motor Functions,
Regulates Awareness, Relays Nerve Signals to the Cerebral
Cortex, Sleep
Damage here causes permanent unconsciousness
4. Cerebellum – “little brain”
Has two hemispheres and convolutions
Regulation, coordination of movement, posture and balance
Older, primitive structure of the brain
“bellum = balance”
There are three major divisions of the brain:
1. Forebrain –
Functions include receiving and processing sensory
information, thinking, perceiving, producing and
understanding language, and controlling motor function.
*contains structures such as the thalamus and hypothalamus
which are responsible for such functions as motor control,
relaying sensory information, and controlling autonomic
functions
*Also contains the largest part of the brain, the cerebrum
Most of the actual information processing in the brain takes
place in the cerebral cortex
2. Midbrain*connects the hindbrain and the forebrain.
*involved in auditory and visual responses as well as motor
function.
The midbrain and the hindbrain together make up the
brainstem
3. Hindbrain – extends from the spinal cord
*contains structures such as the pons and cerebellum
*These regions assists in maintaining balance and
equilibrium, movement coordination, and the conduction of
sensory information.
Other structure included medulla oblongata
*responsible for controlling such autonomic functions as
breathing, heart rate, and digestion.
Neuron: Individual nerve cell; an electrically excitable cell that
processes & transmits information through electrical and
chemical signals
3 functions: 1) receive info 2) process it 3)transmit it to body
 100 billion in brain at birth, generated at ¼ million per
minute during gestation
Dendrites: Receive messages from other neurons
Soma: “Cell body” body of the neuron. Receives messages
and sends messages down axon
Axon: Carries information away from the cell body
Axon Terminals/ Terminal Buttons: Branches that link the
dendrites and somas of other neurons
Myelin Sheath: Fatty layer that coats some axons
Multiple Sclerosis (MS) occurs when myelin layer is
destroyed; numbness, weakness, and paralysis occur
Glial cells - provide support and protection for neurons. They
are thus known as the "supporting cells" of the nervous
system. The four main functions of glial cells are:
1) to surround neurons and hold them in place
2) to supply nutrients and oxygen to neurons
3) to insulate one neuron from another
4) to destroy and remove the carcasses of dead neurons =
clean up
Fig. 2.1 An example of a
neuron, or nerve cell,
showing several of its
important features. The right
foreground shows a nerve
cell fiber in cross section,
and the upper left inset gives
a more realistic picture of the
shape of neurons. The nerve
impulse usually travels from
the dendrites and soma to the
branching ends of the axon.
The neuron shown here is a
motor neuron. Motor
neurons originate in the brain
or spinal cord and send their
axons to the muscles or
glands of the body.
Nerve Impulse - each neuron is like a tiny biological battery
 Resting Potential: Electrical charge of an inactive neuron / At
rest, the inside of an axon is about –60 to –70 millivolts,
compared with the outside.
 Threshold: Trigger point for a neuron’s firing
 Action Potential: When positively charged sodium ions (Na+)
rush into the cell, its interior briefly becomes positive = nerve
impulse
 Ion Channels: Axon membrane has these tiny holes or tunnels
 Negative After-Potential: After the action potential, an
outward flow of positive potassium ions (K+) restores the
negative charge inside the axon = neuron is less willing to
fire
 All or nothing principle: – the neuron either fire or it doesn’t
Fig. 2.2 Activity in an axon can be measured by placing
electrical probes inside and outside the axon. (The scale is
exaggerated here. Such measurements require ultra-small
electrodes, as described later in this chapter.) At rest, the
inside of an axon is about –60 to –70 millivolts, compared
with the outside. Electrochemical changes in a nerve cell
generate an action potential. When positively charged
sodium ions (Na+) rush into the cell, its interior briefly
becomes positive. This is the action potential. After the
action potential, an outward flow of positive potassium ions
(K+) restores the negative charge inside the axon. (See
Figure 2.3 for further explanation.)
Fig. 2.5 A highly magnified view of the synapse shown in
Fig. 2.1. Neurotransmitters are stored in tiny sacs called
synaptic vesicles. The size of the gap is exaggerated here; it
is actually only about one millionth of an inch. Transmitter
molecules vary in their effects
 Synapse: The microscopic space between two neurons, over
with messages pass
 Neurotransmitters: Chemicals that alter activity in neurons;
brain chemicals (some excite and other inhibit activity)
 Receptor Site: Areas on the surface of neurons and other
cells that are sensitive to neurotransmitters
Types of Neurotransmitters you will be tested on:
Acetylcholine (ACh): causes contractions of skeletal muscles,
regulates heart muscles, involved in memory, helps transmit
message to and from brain and spinal cord
Lack of ACh is associated with Alzheimer’s disease
Dopamine: Muscle control and movement, synthesizes
hormones, affects alertness
 addictive drugs, including stimulants such as cocaine,
amphetamine, and methamphetamine, act by
amplifying the effects of dopamine
 Dysfunctions of the dopamine system: Parkinson's
disease, a degenerative condition causing tremor and
motor impairment, is caused by loss of dopaminesecreting neurons
 Schizophrenia involves altered levels of dopamine
activity, and the antipsychotic drugs (neuroleptics)
that are frequently used to treat it have a primary
effect of attenuating dopamine activity / Increased
dopamine leads to positive symptoms of disorder =
hallucinations and delusions
 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are
also believed to be associated with decreased
dopamine activity.
Serotonin: Mood, appetite control, sex activity, attention and
emotion, lack of it linked to depression
 Drugs which alter serotonin levels are used in treating
depression, generalized anxiety disorder and social
phobia.
 Anti-depressants prevent the breakdown of
neurotransmitters = increase concentrations of the
serotonin in the brain
Glutamate – excitatory neurotransmitter involved in info
processing and memory formation in hippocampus, linked to
both Alzheimer’s and Schizophrenia
Endorphins: Released by pituitary gland; also help to relieve
pain
GABA – inhibits firing of neurons
 associated with Huntington’s disease, effects
coordination & movement (neurodegenerative genetic
disorder)
 Seizures associated with malfunctioning GABA
 Current Meds utilize GABA to help control chronic
nerve pain
Agonists- mimic neurotransmitters, bind to receptors and
produce effect of neurotransmitter
Antagonists – blocks receptors and inhibit effect of
neurotransmitters