Chapter 6
Ancient Rome and Early
Christianity
Section 1
The Roman Republic
Section 1 Objective
► Describe
the
structure of the
Roman Republic
and the ways it
changed
Terms to Define
Patrician: wealthy aristocrat class that had come into
being in Rome—Latin nobles.
► Republic: a community in which the people elected the
leaders.
► Plebian: Most of Rome’s inhabitants, some wealthy,
some not, non-aristocratic townspeople and landowners
as well as merchants, shopkeepers, small farmers, and
laborers.
► Consul: Two patrician officials elected for one year
terms. They had to consult each other before acting.
►
Terms (con’t)
► Dictator:
a leader whose word was law—
occurred mostly during times of crisis
► Tribunes: representatives chosen by
Plebians, granting them legal protections
and the right to veto government decisions
People to Meet
► The
Etruscans
► The Latins
► Romulus
► The Tarquins
Places to Locate
► Italy
► Sicily
► Rome
Introduction
► Greeks
settled as
colonies 900 B.C.
► Set up farming
communities
► Planted olive trees and
other crops
► Introduced Greek
alphabet
The Italian Peninsula
► The
Greeks were
interested in colonizing
Italy for several
reasons
-Central location in the
Mediterranean
-Rich soil
The Italian Peninsula
Soiled enriched by silt
from mountain runoff
-Land to the north cut
off by the Apls
Mild, moist, climate
-Ideally suited for
trade among three
continents—Europe,
Asia, Africa
The Italian Peninsula
► Silt
would often clog
the rivers
 Created mosquito
infested areas
 Epidemics of Malaria,
etc
Early Inhabitants
► Generally
traded
among themselves
-Mountains
-Rocky coastline
-Covered 75% of the
country
Early Inhabitants
► Soiled
enriched by silt
from mountain runoff
-Land to the north cut
off by the Alps
-Generally traded
among themselves
Geographic Problems
► Silt
created swamps
which drew mosquitos
► Marshy coastline
wasn’t good for
harbors
Early Peoples
► Neolithic
cultures
probably 5000 B.C.
► People there long
before the Greeks
arrived or Roman
civilization began
► Villages and farms
Indo-Europeans
► Umbrians,
Latins
(Latium--LAY-sheeuhm--), Oscans
► Indo-European
migrants arrived and
overwhelmed the
Neolithic peoples on
Italian Peninsula
2000-1000 B.C.
The Etruscans
► Ruled
northern Italy
from 900 B.C. to 500
B.C.
► Did not speak IndoEuropean languages
► Their alphabet came
from the Greeks—but
only a few Etruscan
words have been
deciphered
The Etruscans (con’t)
► Etruscans
writing
baffles scientists
► Etruscan art (paintings
and sculptures) is
expressive, needing no
translation
-dancing, playing, rich
and pleasant life
The Etruscans
► The
Etruscans…more
 feasting, conversing,
wrestling matches
 Triumphant soldiers
 Beautiful deities, smile
and gesture
The Etruscans (con’t)
► Wealthy
overlords
► Aristocratic priests
► Slave labor
► Slaves forced to dual to the death to
appease angry gods
► Lower classes finally freed themselves—
chief among them were the Latins who
settled in Rome
The Etruscans
► The
Latins freed
themselves after being
offended by the
Etruscans
► Son of Etruscan king
savages matron,
Lucretia
The Rise of Rome--Legend
► Legend
-753 B.C. Romulus was
building a wall for his
city on the side of a hill
overlooking the Tiber
River
-Twin brother Remus
building on the other
side of the hill
The Rise of Rome
► According
to Roman
historian Livy, Remus
leaped over the wall
built by Romulus and
mocked him.
► Romulus killed Remus
warning, “so perish
whoever else shall
overleap my
battlements”
Romulus--myth
► Continued
to build Rome—named after him
 Romulus—myth—great military commander
 Rome continues to expand
► Rome
became the greatest city in that part
of the peninsula
Rome Origins
► Latins
-Huddled in huts on
seven hills
-At some point, 800
B.C.-700 B.C., they
joined to become one
community--Rome
Etruscan Rule
► About
620 B.C., the Etruscan gained control
of Rome
► The Tarquins, name of Etruscan family
-Taught the Latins to use brick to build
-Drained the lowlands and laid out streets
Etruscan Rule
► Created
the Forum in
the middle of the city—
which became the
government building
-Served as kings for
Rome
The Tarquins
► Wealthy
Etruscan
family
► Provided kings for rule
► Taught Romans to built
with brick and tile their
roofs
► Drained marsh lands
and designed streets
The Tarquins
► Created
a
square called
the Forum
 The seat of
government
Tarquins Driven Out
► Tarquin
the Proud—
very cruel
► Romans drive the
Tarquins out
► Etruscans stay and
help Rome prosper
► Tarquin kings son
violates Lacretia
Social Groups
► Latin
nobles called
“patricians”
 Patricians declared
Rome a republic
 Wealthy aristocrats
Social Groups
► Most
of Rome’s
inhabitants were
plebians,
-Both patricians and
plebians could vote
-Both responsible for
serving in military
Social Groups
Patricians
► Vote
► Pay taxes
► Serve in the military
► Could hold public office
Plebians
► Vote
► Pay taxes
► Serve in the military
The Roman Republic
► Patricians
organized Rome’s government
into executive and legislative branches
► Executive Branch




Two consuls assigned day-to-day affairs
One year terms
Each could veto the other
Veto: Latin for “I forbid”
The Roman Republic
► Consuls
oversaw
other officials
 Praetors: judges
 Censors: keepers of
taxes
► Only
a dictator could
overrule the consuls
► Dictators appointed in
times of crisis
The Roman Republic
► Legislative
Branch
-Assembly of Centuries (named for 100
soldiers)
-Senate
The Roman Republic
Assembly of Centuries
► Elected from Executive
Branch officials
► Under patrician control
► Named for military
formation
► Members—100
► Temporary office
► Little real power
Senate
► Executive Branch
► Under Patrician control
► Power outweighed
Assembly
► Members—300
► Served for life
► Advised Consuls
► Proposed laws
► Approved contracts
Cincinnatus
► Most
respected dictator
► Rival threatened Rome
► Found plowing his fields
► Led his troops to victory
► Resigned as dictator and returned to his
fields within 16 days
The Roman Army
►
►
►
Rome Spreads its Power
All citizens who owned land
► Romans defeat
were required to serve.
Army was powerful:
 Organization & fighting
skill
Legion- military
unit of 5,000
infantry
(foot soldiers)
supported by
cavalry
(horseback)
Etruscans in north and
Greek city-states in
south
► Treatment
Conquered:
of
 Made alliances
 Offer citizenship
► By
265 B.C., Rome
controls Italian peninsula
Plebians Against Patricians
► Plebeians
resented power of
Patricians
► Knew they could not rule
without them.
► Plebeians made up most of
military forces
► Patricians concerned about the
military
Plebeians Against Patricians
► Plebeians
went on
strike
► Left city create their
own republic
Tribunes
► Patricians
meet some demands
 Recognized the Plebeians chosen
representatives,“Tribunes”
 Granted them legal protections and the right to
veto government decisions
 Tribunes were members of the Magistrate of
Plebeians and had some power
 Refused to defend the city from invaders
Tribunes
► Patricians
recognized
the Assembly of Tribes,
the body of plebeians
that elected tribunes
► Tribunes could veto
any government
decision
Tribunes
► Could
not be arrested
► Injuring a Tribune was
cause to be put to
death
Comparing Republican
Governments
► What
similarities do you see in the
governments of the Roman Republic and
the United States?
P.166
► What do you think is the most significant
difference between the Roman Republic
and that of the United States today?
Old and New Laws
► Plebeians
insisted laws
put in writing
► The Twelve Tablets:
basis of Roman law
► Plebeians gain right to
serve in public office
► Right to make laws in
Assembly of Tribes
Changes for Plebeians
► Debt
enslavement ended
► Patrician/Plebeian marriage approved
► Plebeians moved Rome closer to democracy
► The most significant victory—the Twelve
Tables—a written law code
The Twelve Tables
► Roman
law had rested
on unwritten traditions
 patrician judges
interpreted unfairly
 Plebeians insisted laws
be written down
The Twelve Tables
► 451
B.C. patricians
engraved the laws on
12 bronze tablets set
in the Forum
-standards for laws
-principle that citizens
protected by law
Religion
► Early
Etruscans worshipped “spirits”
ultimately seen as gods or deities
► Adopted practice of foretelling the future
Religion
► Priests
known as
soothsayers
► Watched flight of birds
or intestines of animals
to gain knowledge of
future
Religion
► Roman
influenced by Greek culture
► 500 years as a republic
► Borrowed Greek deities giving them
Roman names
-Aphrodite, Greek goddess of love,
became the Roman goddess, Venus
-Ares, Greek god of war, became Mars
- Etc.
Religion (con’t)
► Families
privately
worshipped their
ancestral spirits and
their storeroom
guardians
► Worshipped Vesta,
goddess of the hearth
Family
► The
basic unit of roman society
► Large and close knit
► Unmarried children, married sons and their
family, all independent relatives, and
household slaves
► The father was the absolute head
Father as Absolute Family Head
► Conducted
religious ceremonies
► Controlled property
► Supervised education of his sons
► Could sell his family members into slavery
► Could kill family members
► However, fathers felt deep sense of
responsibility for family
Roman Women
► Few
rights, but more than Greek women
► Hosted parties, did marketing, ran
households
► Occasionally, acquired property and
businesses
► Could study art, Greek literature, etc
► Wealthy could let slaves do work
Roman Children
► Firm
discipline
► Complete family loyalty
Parental Training
► Parents
taught children
reading, writing, and
moral standards
► Fathers trained boys:
farmers and soldiers
► Mothers taught
daughters to run
households
Values
► Thrift
► Discipline
► Self-sacrifice
► Devotion
to family
► Devotion to the republic
Rome’s Commercial Network
Rome establishes a large trading network
Access to Mediterranean Sea provides
many trade routes
Carthage, powerful city-state in North
Africa, soon rivals Rome
Punic Wars (264-146 B.C.)
Three Wars between Rome and
Carthage
► 1st Punic War- Rome gains
control of Sicily and western
Mediterranean Sea.
►
The destruction of Carthage during the Punic Wars.
New York Public Library Picture Collection
2nd Punic War- Carthaginian
General Hannibal’s “surprise”
attack through Spain and
France.
►60,000 soldiers and 60
elephants
 Romans experience severe
losses, but eventually ward
off attacks and invade North
Africa
Hannibal's troops crossing the Rhone River on their way to attack northern Italy.
Hannibal image
elephant coin
Punic Wars (264-146 B.C.)
►
3rd Punic War- Rome seizes
Carthage
 Scipio- Roman general designed
a plan to attack Carthage.
 Hannibal returns to Carthage
 Romans defeat Hannibal at
Zama
The destruction of Carthage during the Punic Wars.
New York Public Library Picture Collection
Carthage returns to prosperity
Senator Cato – “Carthage must be
destroyed”
149 B.C. Rome seized Carthage
-Set it afire
-Conquered people sold into
slavery
Plebians Demand Equality
►Plebeians
 Farmers, merchants, artisans, and traders
 Bulk of the population; had little influence
 Government had the Roman laws inscribed
on 12 tablets and set up in the Forum, or
marketplace.
 Laws of the Twelve Tables
► Made it possible for plebians to appeal a
judgment handed down by a patrician
judge.
 Tribunes plebian elected officials to
protect their interests
Plebians Demand Equality
►Plebeians
Roman Society
►Male
the head of the household
►Wife, subject to his authority; not
allowed to administer her own affairs
►In later Roman times, women from
all classes ran businesses.
►Girls and boys learned to read and
write
►Jupiter Roman god who ruled
over the sky and all the other gods.
Expansion in Italy
►270
B.C. Rome controlled most of
the Italian peninsula
►Legion basic military unit made of
about 5,000 men
►Roman armies
 Consisted of citizen-soldiers who
fought without pay and supplied
their own weapons.
Conquered Lands
►People
had to acknowledge Roman
leadership
►Pay taxes
►Supply soldiers for the Roman army
►Rome let them keep their own
customs, money and local
government
►Some gained full citizenship
Protection and Unification
►Posted
soldiers throughout the land
►Built a network of all-weather military
roads to link distant territories to
Rome
►Local peoples incorporated Latin into
their languages and adopted many
Roman customs and beliefs.
Section 2: From Republic to
► Carthage
Empire
 City-state on the
northern coast of
Africa
 Settled by North
Africans and
Phoenician traders
 Ruled over an
empire that
stretched across
North Africa and
the western
Mediterranean
Wars with Carthage
► First
Punic War
 Rome defeated Carthage and won Sicily,
Corsica, and Sardinia
► Second Punic War
 Hannibal, Carthaginian general, led his army
including dozens of war elephants, on an epic
march across the Pyrenees, through France,
and over the Alps into Italy.
 Carthage gave up all its lands except those in
Africa.
Wars with Carthage, cont’d
►Third
Punic War
 Rome completely destroyed Carthage.
 Survivors killed or sold into slavery.
 Romans poured salt over the earth so
nothing would grow there again.
Other Conquests
►Imperialism
 Establishing control over foreign lands
and peoples
►Romans confronted the Hellenistic rulers
who divided up the empire of Alexander
the Great.
►Provinces
 Lands under Roman rule
►133 B.C. Roman power extended from
Spain to Egypt.
Social and Economic Effects
Conquests and control of busy trade routes brought
incredible riches into Rome.
► Generals, officials, and traders amassed fortunes from
loot, taxes, and commerce.
► Latifundia huge estates bought up by newly wealthy
Roman citizens.
 Forced people captured in war to work as slaves
► Widespread use of slave labor hurt small farmers.
► Many farmers fell into debt and had to sell their land.
►
Social and Economic Effects,
cont’d
►Landless farmers
flocked to Rome
and other cities
looking for jobs.
►Gap between
poor and rich
widened
►New wealth
increased
corruption
Attempts at Reform
►Tiberius
and Gaius Gracchus
 Young patrician brothers
 Among the first to attempt reform
►Tiberius, tribune, called on the state to
distribute land to poor farmers
►Gaius, tribune 10 years later, sought a
wider range of reforms
 Use of public funds to buy grain to feed
the poor
►Killed in waves of street violence set off by
senators and their hired thugs.
Decline of the Republic
►Rome
was plunged into a series of civil
wars
 Senate
► Wanted to govern as it had in the
past
 Popular political leaders
► Wanted to weaken the senate and
enact reforms
►Turmoil sparked slave uprisings and
revolts among Rome’s allies
Julius Caesar’s Rise to Power
► Ambitious
military
commander
► Completed the
conquest of Gaul –
now France
► “Veni, vidi, vici”
► Forced the senate to
make him dictator
► Absolute ruler of
Rome
Caesar’s Reforms
► Public
works to employ the jobless
► Gave public land to the poor
► Reorganized the government of the
provinces
► Granted Roman citizenship to more people
► Julian calendar Introduction of a new
calendar based on Egyptian knowledge;
still our calendar today (with minor
changes).
Assassination
► Caesar’s
enemies
worried that he
planned to make
himself king of
Rome
► Plotted against him
to save the republic
► March 44 B.C.
enemies stabbed
him to death in the
senate
Civil Wars
► Caesar’s
death plunged
Rome into a new round of
civil wars
► Mark Antony
► Caesar’s chief general
► Octavian, Caesar’s
grandnephew
 Joined forces to track
down the murderers
►Quarreled,
Octavian
defeated Antony and
Cleopatra
Roman Empire and Roman
Peace
► Octavian received
the title of Augustus, or
“Exalted One”
 Declared him princeps, or first citizen
 Exercised absolute power and named his
successor
 Created an efficient well-trained civil service to
enforce the laws
 High level jobs open to talented men,
regardless of class
 Cemented the allegiance of cities and
provinces to Rome by allowing them a large
measure of self-government.
Augustus
a census,
population count, to
make the tax system
fair
► Set up a postal
service
► Issued new coins to
make trade easier
► Jobless worked on
building roads and
temples and farmed
the land
► Ordered
Bad Emperors and Good Emperors
► Caligula
 Appointed his favorite horse as consul
► Nero
 Viciously persecuted Christians and wan even
blamed for setting a great fire that destroyed
much of Rome
► Hadrian
 Codified Roman law; built a wall across Britain
to hold back attackers
► Marcus
Aurelius
 Philosopher-king; stoic philosophy and
commitment to duty
The Pax Romana
► “Roman
Peace”
► 200 year span that began with Augustus
and ended with Marcus Aurelius
► Roman rule brought peace, order, unity,
and prosperity to lands stretching from the
Euphrates River in the east to Britain in
the west.
Bread and Circuses
► Circus
Maximus
► Rome’s largest
racecourse
► Chariot races
► Gladiator contests
 Slaves trained to
fight
 Good fighter could
win his freedom
► Government
provided free grain
to feed the poor
Section 3: The Roman
Achievement
► Greco-Roman
Civilization
 Rome absorbed ideas from Greek colonists in
southern Italy
 Blending of Greek, Hellenistic, and Roman
traditions produced Greco-Roman civilization.
 Trade and travel during Pax Romano helped
spread.
Literature, Philosophy and
►Aeneid
History
 Written by Virgil after Augustus came to
power; hoped to arouse patriotism and
unite Rome
►Satirize, make fun of
 Other poets, like Horace, used playful wit
to attack human folly.
►Livy, historian, sought to rouse patriotic
feeling and restore traditional Roman
virtues by recalling images of Rome’s
heroic past.
►Stoics stressed the importance of duty and
acceptance of one’s fate; showed concern
Art and Architecture
► sculptors
stressed
realism, and revealed
an individual’s
character
► Romans beautified
their homes with
works of art.
► Pompeii
► Mosaic picture
made from chips of
colored stone or
Pantheon
► Most
famous domed
structure
► Temple to all the
Roman gods
► Still stands in Rome
Technology and Science
excelled in engineering  the
application of science and mathematics
to develop useful structures and
machines.
 Built bridges, roads, harbors, and
aqueducts
 Aqueducts bridge-like stone
structures that brought water from the
hills into Roman cities
 Public baths
► To wash themselves and to hear the
latest news and exchange gossip
►Romans
Roman Law
► Civil
Law
 System of law that applied to Roman citizens
► Law
of Nations
 Applied to all people under Roman rule
► When
Rome extended citizenship across
the empire, the two systems merged.
► Accused allowed to face the accuser
► Presumed innocent until proven guilty
► Judges interpret the laws and make fair
decisions
Section 4: The Rise of
Christianity
►Mystery Religions
 Cult of Isis
► Offered women equal status with
men
 Mithras
► Championed good over evil and
offered life after death
►Rome tolerated the various religious
traditions
 As long as citizens showed loyalty to
Roman gods and acknowledged the
Divisions in Judea
► 63
B.C. Romans conquered Judea, where
most of the Jews of the time lived.
 Romans excused Jews from worshipping
Roman gods.
► Zealots
 Called on Jews to revolt against Rome and
reestablish an independent state.
 Messiah, anointed king sent by God, would
soon appear to lead to Jewish people to
freedom.
► A.D.
Jewish Revolt
66 Roman forces
crushed the rebels
 Captured Jerusalem
 Destroyed the Jewish
temple
► Roman armies leveled
Jerusalem
► Many Jews decided to
leave Judea
► Jewish rabbis extended
and preserved the
religious law as set
forth in the Talmud
Jesus and His Message
► Founder
of Christianity
► Gospels
 First four books of the New Testament
 Matthew, Mark, Luke and John
► Born
about 4 B.C. in Bethlehem
► Worshipped God and followed Jewish law
► Apostles, “a person sent forth”
 Twelve close followers
► Roman
authorities a revolutionary who
might lead the Jews in a rebellion against
Roman rule.
Spread of Christianity
► Paul
Jew from Asia Minor
Had never seen Jesus
Had a vision in which Jesus spoke to him
Spread the teachings of Jesus to gentiles,
non-Jews
 Journeyed around the Mediterranean and set
up churches from Mesopotamia to Rome.
 His letters explained difficult doctrines, judged
disputes, and expanded Christian teachings




►
Apart of the new Testament
Persecution
► Rome
did not tolerate Christianity
► Christians refused to make sacrifices to
the emperor or to honor the Roman gods.
► Roman rulers used Christians as
scapegoats, blaming them for social or
economic ills.
► Thousands of Christians became martyrs,
people who suffer or die for their beliefs.
Reasons for Christianity’s
Appeal
► Found comfort in
Jesus’ message of love
► Welcomed
all people
► Equality, human dignity, and the promise
of a better life
► Incorporated the discipline and
moderation of Greek philosophy
► Christian documents written in Greek or
Latin, languages that many people
understood
► Impressed by the strength of Christians’
belief.
Triumph
► Persecution
ended
with the Edict of
Milan
 Emperor
Constantine
 Granted freedom
of worship to all
citizens of the
Roman empire
The Early Christian Church
►A
person fully joined the Christian
community by renouncing evil in the rite
of baptism.
► Through baptism sins were forgiven by the
grace of God
► Members of the community are equals
► Gather each Sunday as a thanksgiving to
God
► Eucharist
 Sacred meal in which baptized ate bread and
drank wine
Structure of the Church
► Each
Christian community had its own
priest
► Only men allowed to be members of the
clergy
► Bishop church official responsible for all
Christians in a diocese district or region
under the care of a bishop.
► Patriarch highest church official in a
major city.
Divisions in the Church
in Rome popes; began to claim
greater authority over all other bishops.
 Greek-speaking east patriarchs felt that
the five patriarchs should share spiritual
authority as equals.
►Heresies beliefs said to be contrary to
official Church teachings.
 Church leaders met to decide official
Christian teachings.
 Sent out missionaries to convert people to
Christianity
►Bishops
Theology and Scholarship
► Theology
talk or discourse about God.
► Clement and Origen




Leading scholars of the early Christian Church
Lived and worked as teachers in Alexandria
Both wrote in Greek
Could reach a deeper understanding through
reflection
► Augustine
 Bishop of Hippo in North Africa
 Wrote The City of God
Section 5: The Long Decline
► 180
 Marcus Aurelius dies
 Pax Romana ends
►Disruptive political pattern emerges
►50 year period, 26 emperors reigned
►High taxes
►Poor farmers left their land to work for
wealthy landowners
Emperor Diocletian
► 284
A.D.
► Set out to restore order
► Divided the empire into two parts
► Kept control of the wealthier eastern part
himself
► Appointed a co-emperor to rule the
western provinces
► Retained absolute power
► Fixed prices for goods and services to slow
inflation
Emperor Constantine
► 312
A.D.
► Granted toleration to
Christians
► Built a new capital,
Constantinople
 Made the east
portion of the
empire the center
of the power
Foreign Invasions
► Huns
 Nomadic people, migrating across Central Asia
 Dislodge Germanic peoples in their path
 Visigoths, Ostrogoths, and others crossed into
Roman territory seeking safety
► Roman
legions were hard pressed to halt
invading peoples
► Surrendered Britain, France and Spain
Rome Defeated
► 410
 Visigoth general Alaric overran Italy and
plundered Rome
► 434
 Attila, Hun leader
 “scourge of God”
 Embarked on a savage campaign of conquest
across much of Europe
► 476
“fall of Rome”
 Odoacer ousted the emperor in Rome
Causes of the Fall of Rome
►Military
Causes
 Roman legions lacked the discipline and
training of past Roman armies.
 Use of mercenaries foreign soldiers
serving for pay
►Political Causes
 Government became more oppressive
and authoritarian lost support of the
people
 Corrupt officials
 Frequent civil wars
 Dividing the empire
Causes of the Fall of Rome
► Economic
Causes
 Heavy taxes
 Reliance on slave labor discouraged Romans
from exploring new technology
 Farmers abandoned their land
 Middle classes sank into poverty
 War and epidemic diseases swept the empire
► Social
Causes
 Decline of patriotism
 Upper classes devoted to luxury and selfinterest
►
►
►
►
►
►
Ancient History Sourcebook:
Livy: The Rape of Lucretia, from the History of Rome
It took the Roman historian Livy (d. 17 AD) forty years to write his 142-book History of Rome. In this excerpt, he repeats a legend which was extremely important to Romans
during the Republic. The sons of the King of Rome, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, are at Ardea, a city which the army is attempting to conquer, when they hear of the virtue of the
Roman matron Lucretia.
Question:
What virtues does this story put forth for Roman society through the example of Lucretia? Why would this story have mattered to Romans?
LVII. One day when the young men were drinking at the house of Sextus Tarquinius, after a supper where they had dined with the son of Egerius, Tarquinius Conlatinus, they
fell to talking about their wives, and each man fell to praising his wife to excess. Finally Tarquinius Conlatinus declared that there was no need to argue; they might all be sure
that no one was more worthy than his Lucretia. "Young and vigorous as we are, why don't we go get out horses and go and see for ourselves what our wives are doing? And we
will base our judgement on whatever we see them doing when their husbands arrive unannounced." Encouraged by the wine, "Yes, let's go!" they all cried, and they went on
horseback to the city. Darkness was beginning to fall when they arrived and they went to the house of Conlatinus. There, they found Lucretia behaving quite differently from the
daughters-in-law of the King, whom they had found with their friends before a grand feast, preparing to have a night of fun. Lucretia, even though it was night, was still working
on her spinning, with her servants, in the middle of her house. They were all impressed by Lucretia's chaste honor. When her husband and the Tarquins arrived, she received
them, and her husband, the winner, was obliged to invite the king's sons in. It was then that Sextus Tarquinius was seized by the desire to violate Lucretia's chastity, seduced
both by her beauty and by her exemplary virtue. Finally, after a night of youthful games, they returned to the camp.
LVIII. Several days passed. Sextus Tarquinius returned to the house of Conlatinus, with one of his companions. He was well received and given the hospitality of the house, and
maddened with love, he waited until he was sure everyone else was asleep. Then he took up his sword and went to Lucretia's bedroom, and placing his sword against her left
breast, he said, "Quiet, Lucretia; I am Sextus Tarquinius, and I have a sword in my hand. If you speak, you will die." Awakening from sleep, the poor woman realized that she
was without help and very close to death. Sextus Tarquinius declared his love for her, begging and threatening her alternately, and attacked her soul in every way. Finally,
before her steadfastness, which was not affected by the fear of death even after his intimidation, he added another menace. "When I have killed you, I will put next to you the
body of a nude servant, and everyone will say that you were killed during a dishonorable act of adultery." With this menace, Sextus Tarquinius triumphed over her virtue, and
when he had raped her he left, having taken away her honor. Lucretia, overcome with sorrow and shame, sent messengers both to her husband at Ardea and her father at
Rome, asking them each to come "at once, with a good friend, because a very terrible thing had happened." Spurius Lucretius, her father, came with Publius Valerius, the son of
Volesus, and Conlatinus came with Lucius Junius Brutus; they had just returned to Rome when they met Lucretia's messenger. They found Lucretia in her chamber, overpowered
by grief. When she saw them she began to cry. "How are you?" her husband asked. "Very bad," she replied, "how can anothing go well for a woman who has lost her honor?
There are the marks of another man in your bed, Conlatinus. My body is greatly soiled, though my heart is still pure, as my death will prove. But give me your right hand in faith
that you will not allow the guilty to escape. It was Sextus Tarquinius who returned our hospitality with enmity last night. With his sword in his hand, he came to take his
pleasure for my unhappiness, but it will also be his sorrow if you are real men." They promised her that they would pursue him, and they tried to appease her sorrow, saying
that it was the soul that did wrong, and not the body, and because she had had no bad intention, she did no wrong. "It is your responsibility to see that he gets what he
deserves," she said, "I will absolve myself of blame, and I will not free myself from punishment. No woman shall use Lucretia as her example in dishonor." Then she took up a
knife which she had hidden beneath her robe, and plunged it into her heart, collapsing from her wound; she died there amid the cries of her husband and father.
LIX. Brutus, leaving them in their grief, took the knife from Lucretia's wound, and holding it all covered with blood up in the aid, cried, "By this blood, which was so pure before
the crime of the prince, I swear before you, O gods, to chase the King Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, with his criminal wife and all their offspring, by fire, iron, and all the methods
I have at my disposal, and never to tolerate Kings in Rome evermore, whether of that family of any other."