Background to Confederation in The Canadas
Sources:
– Careless: The Union of the Canadas
– Careless: Brown of The Globe
– Creighton: The Young Politician
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
The Rebellions & Union
The Durham Report:
“The quarrel, which I was sent for the purpose of healing, had
been a quarrel between the executive government and the
popular branch of the legislature. The latter body had,
apparently, been contending for popular rights and free
government. The executive had been defending the
prerogative of the Crown...”
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
The Rebellions & Union
The Durham Report:
“... there existed a far deeper and more efficient cause, – a
cause which penetrated beneath its political institutions and
into its social state... I expected to find a contest between a
government and a people: I found two nations warring in the
bosom of a single state: I found a struggle, not of principles,
but of race...”
Lord Durham’s Report II, p 14-16.
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
The Rebellions & Union
The Durham Report:
“...I perceive that it would be idle to attempt any amelioration
of laws or institutions until we could first succeed in
terminating the deadly animosity that now separates the
inhabitants of Lower Canada into hostile divisions of English
and French.”
Lord Durham’s Report II, p 14-16.
.
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
The Rebellions & Union
•
•
Durham makes two key recommendations:
1.
Responsible Government
2.
Assimilation of French Canadians
British Government keener on 2nd: Act of Union 1841
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
The Union of the Canadas
• Institutional element of assimilation was “legislative union”
– Upper & Lower Canada fused
– Single legislative assembly
– 42 seats for each “section”
– Under-represented Lower Canada (Quebec)
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
The Struggle for Responsible Government
• British balked at Responsible Government:
“...although you consult with them [the Exec Council], and are
willing to pay due deference to their advice, you are yourself
the head of your administration… not even bound to adopt
their advice, although always bound to receive it.”
Lord Stanley to Metcalfe (Quoted in Careless 1967, 79)
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
The Struggle for Responsible Government
• Struggle for responsible government marks 1840s
• Cohesive alliance of Reformers in Upper & Lower Canada
defeat Tories & Ultramontanes
• Highly polarized political system with elections marked by
overt corruption and violence
1
An Ideological Map of The Province of Canadas in the 1840s
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An Ideological Map of The Province of Canadas in the 1840s
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The 1st Parliament (1841-43)
Family Compact &
Chateau Clique
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An Ideological Map of The Province of Canadas in the 1840s
The 1st Parliament (1843-44)
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An Ideological Map of The Province of Canadas in the 1840s
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Background to Confederation in The Canadas
The Struggle for Responsible Government
• Struggle for responsible government marks 1840s
• Cohesive alliance of Reformers in Upper & Lower Canada
defeat Tories & Ultramontanes at 1847-48 elections
• The battle for Responsible Government won, the division
between the Reform coalition (on the left) and their Tory
opponents (on the right) weakens
• Unleashes potentially chaotic and complicated political
landscape marked by sectarian and regional as well as political
divisions
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
Sectionalism & Gridlock
•
A series of contentious bills reveals how polarized and
unstable the political situation is:
i.
Rebellion Losses Bill, 1849
ii. Annexationist Manifesto
iii. Common Schools Bill, 1850
iv. Seigneurial Bill, 1853
v. Clergy Reserves Act 1854
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
Sectionalism & Gridlock
•
...and what a lot of English Canadians in Lower Canada
thought about the Rebellion Losses Bill:
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
Sectionalism & Gridlock
•
A series of contentious bills reveals how polarized and
unstable the political situation is:
i.
Rebellion Losses Bill, 1849
ii. Annexationist Manifesto
iii. Common Schools Bill, 1850
iv. Seigneurial Bill, 1853
v. Clergy Reserves Act 1854
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
Sectionalism & Gridlock
• 1850s marked by sectionalism, gridlock, unstable government
• Tensions are:
– Religious (1): Catholic vs Protestant
– Religious (2): Church vs. State
– Constitutional: Republican vs British Government
– Regional: West vs East
• Situation is problematic because:
– No majority party
– Parties are not disciplined
– Alliances are made & broken by patronage & quid pro quo
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
An Ideological Map of The Province of Canadas
Catholic
Church
Republican
British
State
Protestant
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
1
The 3rd Parliament (1848-51) of the Province of Canada
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The Reformers problem is
that their coalition gets too
big and internally
heterogeneous
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Background to Confederation in The Canadas
An Ideological Map of The Province of Canadas in the 1850s
Catholic
Church
Rouges
Blues
Republican
British
State
Protestant
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
An Ideological Map of The Province of Canadas in the 1850s
Catholic
Church
Rouges
Blues
Republican
Clear
Grits
British
Liberal Conservatives
State
Protestant
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
An Ideological Map of The Province of Canadas in the 1850s
Catholic
Church
Rouges
Blues
Republican
Clear
Grits
British
Liberal Conservatives
State
Reformers
Protestant
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
An Ideological Map of The Province of Canadas in the 1850s
Catholic
Church
Rouges
6
Blues
30
Republican
20
British
Clear
Grits
Liberal Conservatives
18
Reformers
2
Protestant
2?
State
6
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
Sectionalism & Gridlock
•
Situation often exacerbated by:
–
Ongoing Sectarian tension:
•
–
University Endowments
Sectional Strategies:
•
–
Movement of Capital
Events:
•
Gavazzi Riots, 6 June 1853
•
“£10,000 Job” Scandal
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
Chaos (Instability) in Multiple Dimensions
•
No equilibrium in 2+ dimensions
•
Clearly, not all alliances possible, but
–
Opposition could always break coalitions
–
Vulnerable to events
–
Hamstrung by institutions: The double-majority!
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
The Double Majority & Veto Points
• Median voter pivotal in 1 dimension
• With simple majority, 43rd member determines outcome
Catholic
Protestant
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
The Double Majority & Veto Points
• Double-Majority: majority overall & majority in each section!
• Creates multiple pivotal voters
• Each pivot is a potential veto point
Catholic
Ultra Montane
Median Voter
22nd Upper
Canada Member
(65th Member)
(43rd Member)
(PIVOTAL)
22nd Lower
Canada Member
(PIVOTAL)
Protestant
(High Tory)
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
Escaping Gridlock & Chaos
•
Brown & Macdonald
searching for stable
solution:
–
Step-by-step elimination of
political dimensions
–
Move to uni-dimensional
politics or dimension-bydimension median
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
Brown’s Problem:
•
Sectarian appeals (No Popery!) give Brown solid but limited
support
•
How can Brown expand his appeal?
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
Brown’s Strategy:
•
The Globe champions Tory-Blue alliance on church-state
dimension (1851)
•
Events & issues undermine this strategy:
–
Supplementary School Bill, 1852
–
Ecclesiastical Corporations Bill, 1853
–
Gavazzi Riots, 1853
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
Macdonald’s Problem:
•
English-French coalition a fixed fact:
“No man in his senses can suppose that this government
can for a century to come be governed by a totally
unfrenchified government.” (Careless 1967, 189)
•
How to remove issues that exacerbate French-English
tension…and still get elected?
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
Macdonald’s Strategy:
•
Build moderate Liberal-Progressive party
•
Sideline Tories by supporting secularization against
Hincks-Morin cabinet (i.e., turn on old allies!)
•
Focus on shared commercial (rail) interests
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
An Ideological Map of The Province of Canadas in the 1850s
Catholic
Church
Rouges
6
Blues
30
Republican
20
British
Clear
Grits
Liberal Conservatives
18
Reformers
2
Protestant
2?
State
6
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
An Ideological Map of The Province of Canadas in the 1850s
Catholic
Church
Rouges
Blues
Republican
Liberal Progressives
Clear
Grits
High
Tories
British
18
Reformers
Protestant
State
Background to Confederation
Macdonald’s Ideological Vision
Catholic
Blues
Commercial
Rouge
Rural
Liberal-Progressives
Ind. Reform
Tories
Protestant
Clear
Grits
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
Brown’s Alternative Strategy:
•
By 1852 Canada West underrepresented
•
“Rep-by-Pop”
•
–
Removes Catholic “advantages”
–
Limits church influence in state affairs
–
Avoids gridlock of “double-majority”
Rep-by-pop “without regard to a separating line between
Upper and Lower Canada” lost 57-15 (March 1853)
Background to Confederation
Brown’s Ideological Vision
Double-Majority
LiberalProgressives
Blues
Commercial
Rural
Rouge
Tories
Ind. Reform
Rep-by Pop
Clear
Grits
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
Brown’s New Problem:
•
Can he ally with Rouges?
“It is clear that the natural allies of the Reformers of Upper
Canada are the Rouges.”
Brown to Sandfield Macdonald (1854)
(Careless 1960, v. 1, 191)
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
Collapse of Hincks’ Government
•
The double-majority principle brings down government
–
•
Hincks’ resignation: “I could not command the
confidence of the section of the province to which I
belong.”(Careless 1967, 210)
Is double-majority a constitutional rule?
–
Hincks: “exceedingly desirable in practical politics, but
quite absurd as a constitutional requirement.
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
Advantage Macdonald
•
Hincks loses vote on speaker, 59-62 (5 Sept 1854)
•
BUT supports Macdonald’s coalition!
“Of all the abortions it could enter the mind of men to
conceive – it is the greatest.” The Globe, Sept 12, 1854
•
38 MPs condemn new cabinet
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
Move and Counter-move:
•
Macdonald gets rid of sectional issues (e.g., Clergy
Reserves, Seigneurial Bill )
•
Brown builds bridges:
–
Supports Clergy Reserves & Seigneurial Bill
–
Invites Grits to form united Reform party, 1856
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
The Double-Shuffle
•
Difficult to hide sectionalism:
–
Taché Act, 1855
–
Corrigan murder trial, 1856-7
–
Movement of Capital Question
•
21 May 1955 – won by 70-47, but no double-
majority
•
Ask Queen to decide!
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
Dorion & Brown:
•
Dorion (Rouge leader) opines on federation in 1856
•
Brown writes Holton:
“No honest man can desire that we remain as we are.
Yet what other way out of our difficulties can be
suggested but a legislative union with rep by pop – a
federal union – or dissolution.” (Careless 1960, 253)
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
The Double-Shuffle
•
Queen chooses Ottawa… Ottawa!
•
Rouge motion that Ottawa unacceptable (July 28, 1858)
1.
Montreal should be capital, not Ottawa
2.
Ottawa should not be the capital
•
Splits Blues and passes 64-50
•
Cabinet calls adjournment: 61-50
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
The Double-Shuffle
•
Macdonald & Cartier resign!
•
Head sends for Brown:
–
“The Governor General gives no pledge or promise,
express or implied, with reference to dissolving
Parliament.”
Background to Confederation in The Canadas
The Double-Shuffle
•
Brown & Dorion weak
•
Ministers have to face by-elections
•
Lose confidence vote 70-31
•
Independence of Parliament Act, 1857