CHAPTER 16
Adolescence:
Social and Emotional
Development
Learning Outcomes
LO1 Discuss the formation of identity in
adolescence.
LO2 Discuss relationships with parents and
peers during adolescence.
LO3 Discuss sexuality during adolescence,
focusing on sexual identity and teenage
pregnancy.
LO4 Discuss the characteristics of juvenile
delinquents.
LO5 Discuss risk factors for adolescent
suicide.
LO6 Discuss the (theoretical) stage of
emerging adulthood.
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TRUTH OR FICTION?
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T-F American adolescent males are more
concerned about occupational choices than
American adolescent females.
T-F Adolescents are in a constant state of
rebellion against their parents.
T-F Most adolescents’ friends are “bad
influences.”
T-F About 800,000 American teenagers become
pregnant each year.
T-F Suicide is the leading cause of death among
American adolescents.
T-F Adolescents become adults at age 21.
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LO1 Development of
Identity: “Who Am I?”
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Development of Identity: Who Am I?
• Formation of Identity
– Erikson and Identity Development:
• Erikson’s 5th Stage of Development is the
Identity vs. Identity Diffusion
• The primary task is to develop ego identity (a sense of
who they are and what they stand for).
• They are faced with choices about their future occupations,
political and religious beliefs, and gender roles.
• Now that they are in formal-operational thinking, they are
able to weigh options abstractly.
Development of Identity: Who Am I?
• Formation of Identity
– Aspects of Erikson’s and Identity Development:
• Psychological Moratorium:
– A time when teens experiment with different roles, values,
beliefs, and relationships
• Identity Crisis:
– The time when they examine their values and make
decisions about life roles
– Those that are successful develop a strong sense of who
they are and what they stand for.
– Those who do not may be intolerant of people who are
different and blindly follow people who adhere to convention.
– In a effort to “fit in” many teens imitate peers’ clothing,
hairstyles, speech, and ideals.
• Teens in developed nations may feel overwhelmed by the
wide array of choices.
• But teen girls of color in the inner-cities may not have as
many choices; college is not an option and they may
become sexually active due to local custom and peer
pressure.
Development of Identity: Who Am I?
• “Identity Statuses” James Marcia
– Theory of identity statuses representing 4 combinations
of the dimensions of exploration and commitment:
• Exploration: involves active questioning and searching
among alternatives to establish goals, values, and beliefs
– Identity Diffusion: no commitments and no effort to
establish any; younger teens or older teens who are
alienated and rebellious
– Moratorium: actively exploring options and attempting to
make choices
• Commitment: a stable investment in one’s goals,values, or
beliefs
– Foreclosure: commitments are made without considering
options; usually made early based on role models
– Identity Achievement: options have been explored and
individual has relatively firm commitments; they generally
have high self-esteem and self-acceptance
Table 16.1 – The Four Identity Stages
Of James Marcia
Development of Identity: Who Am I?
• Development of Identity Statuses
– Before high school little interest in identity is shown.
– During high school and college, teens move from
diffusion and foreclosure to moratorium and
achievement.
– The greatest gains are made in college years where
students are exposed to a variety of lifestyles, beliefs,
and career choices.
– College seniors have a stronger sense of identity than
1st year students.
Development of Identity: Who Am I?
• Ethnicity and Development of Identity
– European American teens, who belong to the dominant
culture in the U.S., are only faced with one set of cultural
values to assimilate.
– Developing one’s identity is more complex for members
of ethnic minority groups, as they must tackle
incorporating two sets of values: those of their dominant
culture and those of their ethnic culture
– Some use the “cafeteria” method, taking a little from
each culture.
– Teens of minority groups may experience prejudice and
discrimination.
– Their family cultural heroes are ignored and role models
can be a problem especially for those living in poverty.
Development of Identity: Who Am I?
• Ethnicity and Development of Identity, cont.
© Cindy Charles/PhotoEdit
– Teens of minority groups face a double issue: if they
identify with the dominant culture, they may be rejected
by the minority group, and if they reject the dominant
group, they may limit their opportunities for advancement
in the larger society.
Development of Identity: Who Am I?
• Ethnicity and Development of Identity, cont.
– Three Stages of Ethic Identity:
• Unexamined ethic identity
– Similar to Marcia’s statuses of diffusion or foreclosure
• Ethnic identity search
– Similar to Moratorium: some event may trigger
awareness of ethnicity and exploration begins;
participation in cultural events and reading and
discussion
• Achieved ethnic identity
– Involves self-acceptance as a member of one’s ethnic
group
Development of Identity: Who Am I?
• Sex and Development of Identity
– Erikson’s views obviously reflect the times he lived in; he
believed sex differences played a role in developing an
identity in both relationship and occupational choices as
well as other matters
– Women:
• Stressed relationship matters; their identity was bound by
their roles as wife and mother
– Men:
• Were more concerned about occupations, and ideological
matters
– Today’s cultural views show:
• Both male and female teens are concerned with
occupational choices, but females are more likely to
integrate occupational and family plans.
• This sex difference may persist because females continue
to be primarily responsible for child rearing even though
most work outside the home.
Development of Identity: Who Am I?
• Development of the Self-Concept
– Before adolescence, children describe themselves in
terms of their physical characteristics and their actions.
– Moving into adolescence, they begin to add
psychological characteristics and social relationships into
their self descriptions.
– The self-concept becomes more differentiated with more
categories.
– They may be contradictory, being one way with parents
and another with peers.
– These conflicts reach a peak around age 14 and then
decline as the advanced formal-operational skills of older
teens allow more integration of contradictions into the
self-concept.
Development of Identity: Who Am I?
• Self-Esteem
– The growing cognitive maturity of younger teens makes them
aware of the disparity between their ideal self and their real
self, especially in terms of physical appearance.
– Boys fantasize about having physiques of warriors they see in
videos or on TV.
– Girls just want to be thin, thin, thin.
– After hitting a low point around age 12-13, self-esteem
gradually improves.
– For most, low self-esteem is only temporary; for others, it
reaches serious levels of depression and suicidal ideation.
– Emotional support from parents and peers is crucial.
– Most teens who feel highly regarded feel positive about
themselves.
– In early teens, parents and peers are important but in later
teen years it is peer support that carries more weight.
LO2 Relationships with
Parents and Peers
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Relationships with Parents and Peers
– During adolescence, children
spend less time with their
parents overall, but more with
their mothers than with fathers.
– Typically, they have more
conflicts with mothers but still view them as being more
supportive.
– Adverse relationships with fathers are often linked to
depression in teens.
– The decrease in time spent with family reflects the
teens striving for independence.
– But teens who feel close to parents have more selfreliance, self-esteem, do better in school, and adjust
better.
© Blend Images/Jupiterimages
• Relationships with Parents
Relationships with Parents and Peers
• Relationships with Parents, cont.
– In early adolescence, bickering with parents increases
and shared activities and expression of affection
decrease.
– Conflicts generally focus on everyday living, such as
chores, homework, curfews, appearance, finances, and
dating issues.
– Even though these “power” struggles take place, most
of the time parents and teens are quite similar in their
values and beliefs regarding larger issues like politics,
religion, and economics.
– As the teens get older, parental controls relax and the
use of punishment is diminished.
Relationships with Parents and Peers
• Relationships with Parents, cont.
– Parenting Styles:
• Differences in parenting styles continue to influence
development of adolescents.
• Authoritative Parents:
– Are willing to exert control but explain reasons for
doing so
– Teens with this type of parent show the most
competent behaviors.
– They are more self-reliant, do better in school, have
better mental health, and show the lowest incidence
of psychological problems and misconduct, including
drug use.
Relationships with Parents and Peers
• Relationships with Peers
– Although relationships with parents generally remain
positive, the role of peers becomes increasingly more
important.
– Friendships in Adolescence:
• Teens have more friends than younger children.
• They usually have one or two “best friends” and several
good friends.
• They spend much of their time with friends, and
communicating with them via phone, texting, or IMing.
• Teens and their friends
are usually the same age,
race, and sex.
Relationships with Parents and Peers
• Relationships with Peers
– Friendships in Adolescence, cont:
• Teen friends usually share similar attitudes about school,
drinking, drug use, and sexual activities.
• Teens with close friends have higher self-esteem.
• Girls tend to have a smaller, closer circle of friends than
do boys.
• Girls are more likely to disclose secrets, share thoughts
and feelings with friends, and engage in unstructured
activities.
• Boys are more likely to engage in organized activities,
such as games and sports.
Relationships with Parents and Peers
• Relationships with Peers
– Peer Groups:
• Teen groups function with less adult guidance/control
than younger age groups.
• Teens also integrate sexes as opposed to same sex
groups at younger ages which may lead to dating or
romantic relationships.
• Most teens belong to one or more peer groups:
Relationships with Parents and Peers
• Relationships with Peers
– Peer Groups:
• Cliques:
– Consist of 5-10 individuals that spend time together and
share activities and confidences.
• Crowds:
– Are larger groups: they may or may not spend much time
together and are identified by their activities or attitudes that
are labeled accordingly
» “Jocks,” “brains,” “druggies,” “nerds”
» The most negatively labeled (“druggies” and “rejects”)
show higher levels of alcohol and drug abuse,
delinquency and depression.
Relationships with Parents and Peers
• Relationships with Peers
– Dating and Romantic Relationships:
• Romantic relationships begin during early and mid
adolescence.
• They tend to be casual and short-lived in early teens but
become more stable and serious in later teens.
• The typical sequence in heterosexual dating follows a
pattern:
– “Hanging out” together in group activities (going to the mall)
– Group dating (joining a mixed-sex group at the movies)
– Traditional two-person dating
• Dating serves a number of functions:
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Just having fun!
Gaining prestige
Learning how to relate to others
Preparation for adult courtship
Relationships with Parents and Peers
• Relationships with Peers
– Peer Influence:
• Parental and peer influence is usually complementary
rather than competitive.
• Teens are more likely to conform to peer standards in
matters of style and taste, such as clothing, hairstyles,
speech patterns, and music.
• But more likely to agree with parent on morals, education,
and career goals
• Peer pressure is less influential in early teens, peaking in
mid teens, and declines after 17.
• Peers provide support and provide a standard to measure
their own behavior by as they develop independence from
the family.
LO3 Sexuality
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Sexuality
• Sexual activity in adolescence takes many forms.
– Three different aspects are:
• Sexual Identity
• Sexual behaviors
• Teenage pregnancy
Sexuality
• Sexual Identity
– Heterosexuals
• Are sexually attracted to people of the opposite sex
• Represent the majority of people and teens
– Homosexuals
• Are sexually attracted to people of the same sex
– Bisexuals
• Are sexually attracted to people of both sexes
– Terms of reference
• Male homosexuals: “gays”
• Female homosexuals: “lesbians”
• Often both males and females are categorized together as
“gays.”
Sexuality
• Sexual Identity, cont.
– Steps of development:
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•
•
•
Acknowledgment of attraction
Self-labeling
Sexual contact
Eventual disclosure
– Process of disclosure
• “Coming out” or accepting one’s homosexual orientation
and making an open declaration to others; teens often
anticipate a negative reaction from family, but some
families are accepting.
• Always at risk for rejection and being ostracized
• Depression and suicide rate are higher in gay youth.
• They often engage in substance abuse, run away from
home, and do poorly in school.
Sexuality
• Sexual Behavior
– Masturbation:
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Sexual self-stimulation
The most common sexual outlet in teens
Most adolescents masturbate at some time.
Nearly universal among males; less common in females
Unclear if attribution can be made to stronger sex drive in
male teens or if female teens have greater social
constraints, or both.
• Beliefs that it is harmful or guilt may lessen the incidence
• But it is not physically harmful
Sexuality
• Sexual Behavior
– Male-Female Sexual Behavior:
• Teens are dating earlier than in past generations.
• Earlier daters are more likely to engage in sex but not
always; teens who have close relationships with their
parents are less likely to initiate sex at an early age.
• The earlier sex is initiated the less likelihood contraception
will be used but may not always lead to pregnancy.
• Most teens engage in “petting” and do not consider
themselves as having sex unless they engage in
intercourse.
• The percentage of teens engaging in sex in high school
has been declining since the early 1990s.
– Still 40-50% have had intercourse
– 42% of girls age 15-17 engage in oral sex
– 72% of girls age 18-19 engage in oral sex
Sexuality
• Sexual Behavior
– Male-Female Sexual Behavior, cont.
• Hormonal changes are partly responsible for onset of
sexual activity, especially in males.
• Social factors may play a greater role in girls.
• Secondary sex characteristics probably play a role in
attractions.
• Early maturing girls are more likely to have older
boyfriends that may draw them into sexual relations.
• Peer pressure plays a large role in teens decision to
engage in sexual activities.
• Most teen are likely to get education about sex from peers
and media sources rather than parents or school.
• Achieving good grades in school is associated with
delayed transition from virgin to non-virgin status.
Figure 16.1 – Percentage of Students in Grades 9-12 Who
Report Having Had Sexual Intercourse
Sexuality
• Sexual Behavior
– Teenage Pregnancy:
• Most women in developed nations defer pregnancy until
late 20s, 30s, or even into 40s
• Most teen pregnancies are accidental and without
committed partners; attributed to:
–
–
–
–
Failure to use contraception or use it reliably
Some are on purpose to coerce a commitment from the boy
Some are rebelling against parents and cultural mores
Most just miscalculate the odds
• For all these reasons, there are about 800,000 teen
pregnancies every year.
– Numbers have dropped from peak of 1 million in the earlymid 1990s; attributed to educational efforts by school,
media, and religious organizations
– But there is an increase beginning to be seen again
– Nearly half of teen pregnancies end in abortion.
Figure 16.2 – Birth Rates for Teenagers by Age, United
States, 1980-2006
Source: Hamilton et al. (2007).
Sexuality
• Sexual Behavior
– Consequences of Teenage Pregnancy:
• For the teens who choose to keep their babies and have
the resources to do so, the outcome is generally good.
• Females tend to be healthy in late adolescence.
• However, the medical, social, and financial costs of
unplanned or unwanted pregnancies in teens are
enormous both to mothers and children.
– Teen mothers are more likely to experience medical
complications and labor is likely to be prolonged.
– There is greater risk for premature birth and low birth-weight
babies.
– Teen mothers (especially from lower SES) are less likely to
get adequate prenatal care or get adequate nutrition.
– Teen mothers are less likely to graduate from high school or
move on to college.
– Teen mothers are more likely to need public assistance.
– Teen fathers typically cannot support themselves, much less
care for a family.
Sexuality
• Sexual Behavior
– Preventing Teenage Pregnancy:
• Over the past several decades there have been dramatic
increases in programs to help prevent teen pregnancies.
• Prevention efforts include educating teens about sex and
contraception and providing family planning services.
• The majority of American parents want their children to
have sex education in the schools.
• Although some fear that sex education will increase sexual
activity, some programs actually delay the onset of sexual
activity.
• For those who are already sexually active, sex education
is associated with increased use of effective
contraception.
Sexuality
• What Parents Want from Sex Education Courses
– 99% want their children to be taught about sexually
transmitted infections.
– 96% want them to understand “how babies are made.”
– 95% would like them to be encouraged to wait to have
sex until they are older.
– 94% want discussions to cover birth control.
– 85% want discussions to cover abortion.
– 73% want discussions to cover sexual orientation.
– 72% want discussions to cover oral sex.
– 71% want their teens to get birth control without parental
permission.
LO4 Juvenile Delinquents
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Juvenile Delinquency
• Juvenile Delinquency
– Refers to children or teens who engage in illegal
activities and come into contact with the criminal justice
system
• The most extreme include homicide, rape, and robbery.
• Less serious (called status offenses) include truancy,
drinking, running away from home, and sexual
promiscuity.
© Maxim Lysenko/iStockphoto.com
Juvenile Delinquency
• Juvenile Delinquency, cont.
– Antisocial and criminal behaviors dramatically increase
in many cultures during adolescence.
• 4 in 10 serious crimes are committed by those under age
21.
• About 3 in 0 by those under age 18.
– Many delinquent acts do not result in arrest or
conviction.
• Many cases are disposed of informally, such as referral to
a mental health agency.
Juvenile Delinquency
• Ethnicity, Sex, and Juvenile Delinquency
– Ethnicity:
• Boys are much more likely than girls to engage in
delinquent behavior, especially violent crimes.
• Girls are more likely to commit status offenses.
• African American teens are more likely to be arrested than
European American teens.
– African American youth make up only 13% of the teen
population in the U.S.
– But 1/4 of juvenile arrests are African Americans; 1/2
of those are for violent crimes.
– The delinquency rate for African American teens is
more than 2 times that of European American teens.
Juvenile Delinquency
• Ethnicity, Sex, and Juvenile Delinquency, cont.
– Ethnicity:
• Possible Explanations:
– Differential Offending Hypothesis:
» Suggests actual racial differences in the incidence
and seriousness of the crimes
– Differential Treatment Hypothesis:
» Suggests they do not behave differently but get
treated differently (intentionally or accidentally) by
the system
» The system expects worse behavior so polices
them more and treats them more harshly.
» African American teens have more interaction with
the juvenile justice system and are more likely to
think of themselves as criminals.
Juvenile Delinquency
• Ethnicity, Sex, and Juvenile Delinquency, cont.
– Ethnicity:
• Possible Explanations:
– Economic and family factors:
» African American and Latino/a American children
and teens are 3 times more likely to live in poverty
than European Americans.
» African American and Latino/a American children
are less likely to be living with both biological
parents regardless if they are married.
» It cannot be stated that poverty or broken homes
cause delinquency but they do appear to be risk
factors.
Figure 16.3 – The Delinquency Cases Rate per
1,000 Juveniles
Juvenile Delinquency
• Ethnicity, Sex, and Juvenile Delinquency, con’t.
– Who Are the Delinquents?
• Even if causes are unclear, there are a number of factors
associated with delinquency.
– Aggressive, antisocial, hyperactive behaviors at an
early age
– Lower verbal IQ scores, immature moral reasoning,
low self-esteem, feelings of alienation, impulsivity
– And other personal factors: little interest in school,
early substance abuse, early sexuality, and delinquent
friends
– Families are lax and ineffective in discipline, show low
levels of affection, high levels of conflict, physical
abuse, severe punishments, and neglect.
– Parents and siblings of teen offenders are frequently
antisocial, deviant, or criminals themselves.
– Teen delinquents usually live in neighborhoods where
crime is “normal” and are frequently victims
themselves, giving rise to feelings of anger.
LO5 Suicide: When the
Adolescent Has Nothing—
Except Everything—to Lose
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Adolescent Suicide
• Suicide is the third leading cause of death among
teens.
• About 1 to 2 American teens in 10,000 commit suicide
each year.
• About 1 in 10 has attempted it.
• Since 1960, the suicide rate has more than tripled for
ages 15-24.
Adolescent Suicide
•
Risk Factors in Suicide
–
–
Most suicides in teens and adults are linked to feelings
of depression and hopelessness.
Suicidal teens experience 4 psychological problem
areas.
1. Confusion about the self
2. Impulsiveness
3. Emotional instability
4. Interpersonal problems
Adolescent Suicide
• Risk Factors in Suicide, con’t.
– Many teens become depressed by making inappropriate
and negative comparisons of themselves with others.
– Teen suicide attempts are more common after stressful
life events, especially if they result in loss of social
support such as a death or relationship breakup.
– Other contributors include concerns over sexuality,
grades, family problems, substance abuse, and extreme
body dissatisfaction.
– Suicide tends to run in families which could be genetic or
social implications.
Adolescent Suicide
• Risk Factors in Suicide, con’t.
– Warning Signs of Teen Suicide:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Belief that it is acceptable to kill oneself
Drug abuse and other kinds of delinquency
Victimization by bullying
Extensive body piercing
Stress
Hostility
Depression and other psychological disorders
Heavy smoking
Low self-esteem
Increasing age from 11 to 21
Adolescent Suicide
• Risk Factors in Suicide, con’t.
– Ethnicity, Sex, and Suicide
• In 2007, 6.9% of U.S. high school students attempted
suicide.
• Ethnic differences:
– Latino/as have highest rate at 10.2%
– African Americans are next at 7.7%
– European Americans are least likely with 5.6%
• Sex differences:
– Females are about twice as likely as males at 9.3%
– Males are at 4.6%
– However males are more likely to succeed and most
likely to use lethal weapons whereas females are more
likely to use medications that allow more time for
interventions.
LO6 Epilogue: Emerging Adulthood—
Bridging Adolescence and the Life
Beyond
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Epilogue: Emerging Adulthood
• Defining “Adult”
– Stages of adulthood:
• Early adulthood; Middle adulthood; Late Adulthood
• Early adulthood typically seen as the 20s
– Legal definitions vary:
• Consent of marriage age varies from state to state but in
general is permitted for teens.
• Legal drinking age is 21.
• Age for driving also varies.
– Other criteria:
• Holding a full-time job; becoming financially independent
• Living independently; establishing an equal relationship
with parents
• Making one’s own value and belief judgments
• Accepting self-responsibility
– The new Emergent Adult is between 18-25 years old.
Epilogue: Emerging Adulthood
• Emerging Adulthood
– A relatively newcomer to human developmental theory
is characterized as a distinct period of development that
is found in societies that allow young people an
extended opportunity to explore their roles in life
beyond adolescence.
– These tend to be affluent societies, found in developed
nations, the U.S. included.
– Parents and social structures are in place to support
these emergent or pre-adults
while they continue to sort out
their goals and identity issues.
© Ashwin Kharidehal Abhirama /iStockphoto.com
Epilogue: Emerging Adulthood
• Arnett (2007) summarizes the types of social and
technological influences that have spurred the rise of
emerging adulthood.
– Changes from a manufacturing based economy to an
information-based economy increasing the need for
advanced education and training
– Advent of birth control making it possible for late teens to
become sexually active without becoming pregnant
– Increased social acceptance of premarital sex and
cohabitation weakening the traditional connection between
marriage and the onset of sexual activity; moving the
median ages of beginning marriage and parenthood
upward into the mid to late 20s
– The period of life from the late teens through the mid-20s
becoming for many in the developed world, a period of
advanced self-development and gradual laying of a
foundation for “adulthood”
Epilogue: Emerging Adulthood
• Historical view
– Erikson did not use the term “emerging adulthood” but
did recognize the elongated period of adolescence in
developed nations.
– He used the term moratorium to describe the quest for
identity among people who dwell in extended
adolescence.
– He and other theorists also believed it was more
important to take the voyage to identity rather than
foreclose it by adopting the viewpoints of others.
Epilogue: Emerging Adulthood
• Although there are obvious advantages to prolonging
the entry into full adulthood, there are also
disadvantages.
– Remaining dependent on parents can compromise selfesteem
– Student loans for extended education can add debt to
becoming an adult.
– Deferred marriage and child bearing may find women in
a race with their “biological clocks.”