GEOG 135 – Economic Geography
Professor: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Topic 4 – Natural Resources
A – Types of Resources
B – Conventional Sources of Energy
C – Alternative Sources of Energy
Hofstra
Department
of Global
Studies
& Geography
HofstraUniversity,
University,
Department
of Global
Studies
& Geography
A – TYPES OF RESOURCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
Resources and Reserves
The Renewable / Non-Renewable Dichotomy
Resources, Technology and Society
Minerals
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
1. Resources and Reserves
■ Context
Minerals
Biological resources
Endowments
Location
Human
Capital
• A resource is something held
in reserve that can be used
for a purpose.
• “Nature does not care”.
• Three major categories of
resources.
■ Natural resources
• Derived from physiographical
conditions.
■ Economic resources
• Derived from human
activities.
■ Geographical resources
• Derived by spatial
characteristics.
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Natural
Geographical
Economic
1. Resources and Reserves
Human
resources
Population and level of qualification. Commonly referred as the
workforce.
Capital (money)
“Portable resource”. Measure the amount of resources available to
an economy.
Location
Grants access to markets and resources. Derive wealth acting as
intermediary places (Panama, Singapore, Hong Kong, the
Netherlands).
Endowments
Scenery, mountains, beaches and coral reefs. Resources when
tourism is involved.
Biological
resources
Used to sustain life. Can be converted. Soil, water, and forestry
resources.
Mineral
resources
Fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, oil), metallic minerals (iron,
aluminum, copper) and non-metallic minerals (Nitrogen, calcium,
potash, sulfur, salt, sand).
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Reserves and Total Resources
Sub-economic
Potentially
Unrecoverable
Cost of Recovery
Price / Technology
Available
Resources
Reserves
Exploration
(Identified and
recoverable)
Unidentified
Uncertainty
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
2. The Renewable / Non-renewable Dichotomy
Non-renewable Resources
Renewable Resources
Extraction Rate /
Replenishment Rate
Time Scale
Geological
Formed over a time scale involving
geologic time. Once consumed,
they disappear forever (unless
recycled).
Human
Replenishment can occur on a
human time scale (Years,
decades, centuries).
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
2. The Renewable / Non-renewable Dichotomy
Infiniti
Millions
Minerals (unless recycled)
Fossil fuels (oil, coal)
Millennia
Centuries
Years
Months
Soils: 200 years (permanent vegetation cover) - 1000 years (mature).
Erosion is extremely important because growing populations do not
provide adequate time for soils to regenerate fully.
Forests: In some areas, the rates of deforestation surpass the natural
ability of the forest to regenerate. Rainforest: 65-100 years.
Food: Very short growth cycle (reason why preferred as food source).
Rice (3-6 months). Chicken (12 weeks).
Water: Rivers. Rain water. Aquifers. Irrigation has increased in many dry
areas.
Days
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
2. The Renewable / Non-renewable Dichotomy
CHARACTERISTIC
OIL
Quantity of resource
Finite
Renewable or NonRenewable
Flow
Transportability
Non-renewable resource
Only as withdrawals from fixed stocks
Long-distance transport is
economically viable
WATER
Literally finite; but practically
unlimited at a cost
Renewable overall, but with locally
non-renewable stocks
Water cycle renews natural flows
Long distance transport is not
economically viable
Some uses of water are
consumptive, but many are not.
Overall, water is not "consumed"
from the hydro-logic cycle
Consumptive versus nonconsumptive use
Almost all use of petroleum is
consumptive, converting high-quality
fuel into lower quality heat
Substitutability
The energy provided by the
combustion of oil can be provided by
a wide range of alternatives
Water has no substitute for a wide
range of functions and purposes
Limited availability; substitution
inevitable by a backstop renewable
source
Locally limited, but globally unlimited
after backstop source (e.g.
desalination of oceans) is
economically and environmentally
developed
Prospects
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Non-Renewable Resources Curve
Usage
Resource Peak
Abandonment /
transition
Adoption
Time
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Potential Depletion of Non-Renewable Resources
Extract, use and discard
Usage
Recycle, technological improvements
Recycle, reuse, reduce consumption,
technological improvements
Time
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
2. The Renewable / Non-Renewable Dichotomy
■ Renewable sources of energy are also dependent
on non-renewable resources
• Photovoltaic cells consume non-renewable resources.
• Solar-thermal plants consume land and water from
aquifers (arid areas).
• Geothermal power consumes water from aquifers.
• Wind energy consumes land, concrete, steel and rare
earths (gearboxes).
• All energy supplies require distribution systems (electric
wires) that consume land and resources.
• The term renewable energy is therefore misleading.
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
3. Resources, Technology and Society
■ Technology
• Definition:
• Processes according to which tools and machines are constructed.
• Insure a control of the physical environment.
• Comes from the Greek word teckne (manual expertise) and logia
(field of knowledge).
• Technology means the control, or the science, of manual
expertise.
• The more it is developed, the further the control and the
transformation of matter is possible.
• Concept of resource is tied to:
• Technology (extent of available resources).
• Technological change (growth in available resources and the
efficiency of their use).
• Culture controlling the technology (level of consumption).
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
3. Resources, Technology and Society
■ Nuance
• Technology requires the
systematic usage of science
and especially of the scientific
method.
• Relationship between
science, technology and
production (the market).
• Scientific research helps
discover or improve a
technology.
• Changes production while
creating new goods available
or permitting a more efficient
way to produce.
Science
• Comprehension of
the laws of
physical systems
• Level of technical
expertise over
matter
Technology
• Practical use of a
level of technical
expertise
Production
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
3. Resources, Technology and Society
■ The “Resource Curse”
• Paradox:
• Many resource-rich countries have the poorest population.
• Particularly for resources that have a high concentration level (e.g.
oil, diamonds, gold).
• Resources as a power support structure:
• Prone to authoritarian rule, slow growth, corruption and conflict.
• Resources used to finance armies, corruption and patronage.
• Civil wars to gain control of resources.
• The “curse”:
• Instead of resources being a vector for development and capital
accumulation, they become a factor of inequality.
• Under investment in infrastructures, utilities, health and
education.
• Inverse relationship between natural resources and democracy.
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
3. Resources, Technology and Society
■ Resource loss due to destruction
• Natural and man causes can destroy resources.
• Natural hazards:
• Earthquakes.
• Weather hazards (hurricanes, tornadoes, flooding).
• Forest fires.
• Pollution:
• Reduces the quantity and quality of natural resources such as
water.
• Conflicts:
• Destroyed huge quantities of resources, material and human alike,
throughout history.
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
3. Sources of Energy
Chemical
Non-Renewable
• Fossil fuels (Combustion)
Nuclear
• Uranium (Fission of atoms)
Movement
•
•
Stored (potential)
Kinetic (used)
Ordered (mechanical
energy)
Energy
Chemical
• Muscular (Oxidization)
Nuclear
• Geothermal (Conversion)
• Fusion (Fusion of hydrogen)
Renewable
Disordered (thermal
energy)
Gravity
• Tidal, hydraulic (Kinetic)
Indirect Solar
• Biomass (Photosynthesis)
• Wind (Pressure differences)
Direct Solar
• Photovoltaic cell (Conversion)
World’s power consumption: 12 trillion watts
per year (85% from fossil fuels)
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
3. Chemical Energy Content of some Fuels (in MJ/kg)
Wood
Ethanol
Coal (Bituminous)
Methanol
Coal (Anthracite)
Bunker C
Crude Oil
Jet A-1
Diesel
Gasoline (Automobile)
Kerosene
Natural Gas
Propane
LNG
Methane
Hydrogen
17.1
19.9
23.9
31.1
31.4
40.0
41.9
43.3
45.3
45.8
46.3
47.2
50.3
55.0
55.5
142.0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
3. Energy and Work
Modification of the
Environment
Appropriation and
Processing
Transfer
■Making space suitable for
human activities (20% of
electricity in the US used
for AC).
■Clearing land for
agriculture.
■Modifying the
hydrography (irrigation).
■Establishing distribution
infrastructures (roads).
■Constructing and
conditioning (temperature
and light) enclosed
structures.
■Extraction of resources
(agricultural products and
raw materials).
■Modifying resources
(manufacturing).
■Disposal of wastes
(Piling, decontaminating
and burning).
■Movements of freight,
people and information.
■Attenuate the spatial
inequities in the location of
resources by overcoming
distance.
■Growing share of
transportation in the total
energy spent.
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Fuels Production Processes
Fuel
Sources
Process
Liquid petroleum fuels (gasoline,
diesel, kerosene, jet fuel, bunker
fuel)
Conventional oil fields (ground and Refining
shore-based). Non-conventional
sources (tar sands)
Liquid synthetic fuels
Natural gas, coal
Gasification
Biodiesel
Oil seed crops
Esterification, hydrogenation
Ethanol
Grain crops
Saccharification and distillation
Sugar crops (cane)
Distillation
Advanced biodiesel
Biomass from crops or waste
products
Gasification
Compressed natural gas (CNG)
Natural gas
Gasification
Electricity
Coal, gas, petroleum, nuclear,
renewables (hydro, wind)
Electric generator (source
dependent)
Hydrogen
Natural gas
Reforming, compression
Electricity
Electrolysis
Direct production using other
sources
High temperature process
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
4. Minerals
■ The earth’s crust
• Contains metallic and non-metallic minerals.
• Unequal concentration and distribution because of
geology.
■ Metals
• Dominant mineral resources.
■ Ore
• Rock in which a mineral can be mined.
• Two factors for ore mining:
• Market value of the mineral.
• Concentration level in the ore.
• There are ore rocks all over the world.
• Only a small portion can be economically mined.
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Composition of the Earth’s Crust
8.2%
5.6%
4.1%
28.2%
2.4%
2.3%
2.1%
0.5%
0.3%
46.3%
Oxygen
Silicon
Aluminum
Iron
Calcium
Sodium
Magnesium
Potassium
Titanium
Other
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Global Plate Tectonics and Seismic Activity
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
4. Minerals
■ Metals
• Iron:
• Most common and used metal.
• Iron deposits can easily be mined and smelted for the ore.
• Used to make steel, a highly versatile metal.
• Aluminum:
• Second most used metal.
• Light weight and strength.
• Third most common element in the crust, but difficult to extract in
its most common form (silicates).
• Bauxite: easier form to extract aluminum but energy intensive
(electricity).
■ Nonmetallic minerals
• Vary wide variety and use.
• Clay. Limestone. Potash (fertilizer). Silica sand.
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
4. Some Minerals Used in Household Goods
Good
Mineral components
Glass & ceramic
Silica sand, limestone, talc, lithium, borates, soda ash, feldspar
Fertilizers
Potash, phosphate, nitrogen, sulfur
Toothpaste
Calcium carbonate, limestone, sodium carbonate, fluorite
Lipstick
Calcium carbonate, talc
Caulking
Limestone, gypsum
Paint
Titanium dioxide, kaolin clays, calcium carbonate, mica, talc, silica
Concrete
Limestone, gypsum, iron oxide, clay
Pencil
Graphite, clay
Sport equipment
Graphite, fiberglass
Pots and pans
Aluminum, iron
Automobile
15 different metals and minerals
Cell phone
50 different metals and minerals
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
World Mineral Reserves (years of production left), 2002
Gold
17
Zinc
22
Lead
23
Copper
36
Tin
26
Nickel
46
Iron Ore
136
Bauxite
156
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
B - CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY
1.
2.
3.
4.
Coal
Petroleum
Natural Gas
Nuclear
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
1. Characteristics
■ Nature
• Formed from decayed swamp plant matter that cannot
decompose in the low-oxygen underwater environment.
• Coal was the major fuel of the early Industrial Revolution.
• High correlation between the location of coal resources
and early industrial centers:
•
•
•
•
•
The Midlands of Britain.
Parts of Wales.
Pennsylvania.
Silesia (Poland).
German Ruhr Valley.
• Three grades of coal.
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
1. Characteristics
0
Carbon content (%)
50
100
Lignite
Bituminous
Energy
Carbon
Anthracite
■ Anthracite (7%)
• Highest grade; over 85%
carbon.
• Most efficient to burn.
• Lowest sulfur content; the
least polluting.
• The most exploited and most
rapidly depleted.
■ Bituminous (75%)
• Medium grade coal, about
50-75% carbon content.
• Higher sulfur content and less
fuel-efficient.
• Most abundant coal in the
USA.
■ Lignite (18%)
0
1000
2000
Burned energy (1,000 calories per kg)
• Lowest grade of coal, with
about 40% carbon content.
• Low energy content. © Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
1. Main Coal Regions of the United States
Lignite
Powder River Basin
(40%)
Bituminous
Bituminous
Lignite
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
2. Coal Use
■ Coal use
• Thermal coal (about 90% use):
• Used mainly in power stations to produce high pressure steam,
which then drives turbines to generate electricity.
• Also used to fire cement and lime kilns.
• Until the middle of the 20th Century used in steam engines
(“Steam Coal”).
• Coking coal:
• Specific type of metallurgical coal derived from bituminous coal.
• Used as a source of carbon, for converting a metal ore to metal.
• Removing the oxygen in the ore by forcing it to combine with the
carbon in the coal to form CO2.
• Used for making iron in blast furnaces (without smoke).
• New redevelopment of the coal industry:
• In view of rising energy prices.
• “Clean Coal” technologies, less ashes but same CO2.
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
2. Coal Consumption, 1965-2011 (in millions of tons of oil
equivalent)
4000
Rest of the world
India
China
USA
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
2011
2009
2007
2005
2003
2001
1999
1997
1995
1993
1991
1989
1987
1985
1983
1981
1979
1977
1975
1973
1971
1969
1967
1965
0
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
2. Coal as % of Energy Use and Electricity Generation, 1998
United States
Germany
Denmark
Slovakia
Ukraine
South Korea
Australia
Electricity (%)
Energy (%)
Czech Rep.
Kazakhstan
India
Poland
China
South Africa
0
20
40
60
80
100
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
3. The Economic Importance of Petroleum
■ Nature
• Formation of oil deposits (biotic perspective):
• Decay under pressure of billions of microscopic plants in
sedimentary rocks.
• “Oil window”; 7,000 to 15,000 feet.
• Created over the last 600 million years.
• A-biotic perspective.
• Exploration of new sources of petroleum:
• Related to the geologic history of an area.
• Located in sedimentary basins.
• About 90% of all petroleum resources have been discovered.
• Production vs. consumption:
• Geographical differences.
• Contributed to the political problems linked with oil supply.
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
3. The Economic Importance of Petroleum
■ Use
• Transportation:
• The share of transportation has increased in the total oil
consumption.
• Accounts for more the 55% of the oil used.
• In the US, this share is 70%.
• Limited possibility at substitution.
• Other uses (30%):
• Lubricant.
• Plastics.
• Fertilizers.
• Choice of an energy source:
• Depend on a number of utility factors.
• Favoring the usage of fossil fuels, notably petroleum.
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Global Oil Market
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Jan-70
Jan-71
Jan-72
Jan-73
Jan-74
Jan-75
Jan-76
Jan-77
Jan-78
Jan-79
Jan-80
Jan-81
Jan-82
Jan-83
Jan-84
Jan-85
Jan-86
Jan-87
Jan-88
Jan-89
Jan-90
Jan-91
Jan-92
Jan-93
Jan-94
Jan-95
Jan-96
Jan-97
Jan-98
Jan-99
Jan-00
Jan-01
Jan-02
Jan-03
Jan-04
Jan-05
Jan-06
Jan-07
Jan-08
Jan-09
Jan-10
Jan-11
Jan-12
West Texas Intermediate, Monthly Nominal Spot Oil Price (19702012)
140
120
Third Oil Shock
100
80
60
Second Oil Shock
40
First Oil Shock
20
0
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
World Annual Oil Production (1900-2011) and Peak Oil (2010)
35
2010 Peak
30
Actual
20
15
10
5
2100
2090
2080
2070
2060
2050
2040
2030
2020
2010
2000
1990
1980
1970
1960
1950
1940
1930
1920
1910
0
1900
Billions of barrels
25
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
4. Nature and Use
■ Natural gas formation
• Thermogenic: converted organic material into natural gas
due to high pressure.
• Deeper window than oil.
• Biogenic: transformation by microorganisms.
■ Composition
• Composed primarily of methane and other light
hydrocarbons.
• Mixture of 50 to 90% by volume of methane, propane and
butane.
• “Dry” and “wet” (methane content); “sweet” and “sour”
(sulfur content).
• Usually found in association with oil:
• Formation of oil is likely to have natural gas as a by-product.
• Often a layer over the petroleum.
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
4. Nature and Use
■ Use
• Mostly used for energy generation.
• Transition in use:
• Previously, it was often wasted; burned off.
• The major problem is transporting natural gas, which requires
pipelines.
• Now more frequently conserved and used.
• Considered the cleanest fossil fuel to use.
• Gas turbine technology enables to use natural gas to
produce electricity more cheaply than using coal.
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
4. Availability and Distribution
■ Reserves
• Substantial reserves likely to satisfy energy needs for the
next 100 years.
• High level of concentration:
• 45% of the world’s reserves are in Russia and Iran.
• Regional concentration of gas resources is more diverse:
• As opposed to oil.
• Only 36% of the reserves are in the Middle East.
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
4. Proved Reserves of Natural Gas
Indonesia
2011
2009
Iraq
Australia
Algeria
Nigeria
Venezuela
United Arab Emirates
Saudi Arabia
US
Turkmenistan
Qatar
Iran
Russian Federation
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
4. Natural Gas
■ Liquefied natural gas (LNG)
• Growth of the global demand has created needs to move
natural gas over long distances.
• Liquid form of natural gas; easier to transport.
• Cryogenic process (-256oF): gas loses 610 times its volume.
• Value chain:
•
•
•
•
Extraction.
Liquefaction.
Shipping.
Storage and re-gasification.
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
5. Nuclear Power Generation
■ Nature
• Fission of uranium to produce energy.
• The fission of 1 kg (2.2 lbs.) of uranium-235 releases 18.7
million kilowatt-hours as heat.
• A nuclear power plant of 1,000 megawatts requires 200
tons of uranium per year.
• Heat is used to boil water and activate steam turbines.
• Uranium is fairly abundant.
• Requires massive amounts of water for cooling the
reactor.
• Relatively cheap: 2 cents per kWh (4 cents for coal).
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
5. Nuclear Power Generation
■ Nuclear power plants
• 436 operating nuclear power plants (civilian) worldwide.
• Very few new plants coming on line:
• Public resistance (NIMBY syndrome).
• High costs.
• Nuclear waste disposal.
• 30 countries generate nuclear electricity:
• About 15% of all electricity generated worldwide.
• Required about 77,000 metric tons of uranium.
• United States:
•
•
•
•
104 licensed nuclear power plants; about 20% of the electricity.
Licenses are usually given for a 40 year period.
Many US plants will are coming up for 20 years license extensions.
No new nuclear power plant built since 1979 (Three Mile Island
incident).
• 4-6 new units by 2018.
• China:
• 11 nuclear power plants.
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
10 Largest Nuclear Power Users, 2009
Sweden
China
Ukraine
Canada
Germany
South Korea
Russia
Japan
France
United States
0.0
100.0
200.0
300.0
400.0
500.0
600.0
700.0
800.0
900.0
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
5. Nuclear Power Generation
■ Uranium reserves
Reserves
Ukraine
Other
2%
China 4%
USA
2%
4%
Uzbekista
n
6%
Canada
22%
Namibia
7%
Niger
8%
Russia
8%
Australia
21%
• Canada and Australia
account for 43% of
global reserves.
• The problem of “peak
uranium”.
• 20 years of reserves in
current mines.
• 80 years of known
economic reserves.
Kazakhsta
n
16%
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
C - ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Hydropower
Hydrogen
Biomass
Solar
Wind
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
1. Hydropower Generation
■ Nature
• Generation of mechanical energy using the flow of water
as the energy source.
• Gravity as source and sun as the “pump”.
• Requires a large reservoir of water (energy “storage”).
• 95% energy efficiency.
• Considered cleaner, less polluting than fossil fuels.
• Cheapest source of energy: 1 cent per kWh.
■ Utilization
• Water wheels used for centuries (grinding flour).
• Used during the industrial revolution to power the first
machines.
• First hydroelectric plant; Niagara Falls (1879).
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
1. World Hydroelectric Generating Capacity, 1965-2009 (in
megawatts)
3,500
3,000
2,500
2,000
China
Brazil
Canada
United States
World
1,500
1,000
500
0
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
1. Hydropower Generation
■ Controversy
• Require the development of vast amounts of
infrastructures:
•
•
•
•
Dams.
Reservoirs.
Power plants and power lines.
Very expensive and consume financial resources or aid resources
that could be utilized for other things.
• Environmental problems:
• The dams themselves often alter the environment in the areas
where they are located.
• Changing the nature of rivers, creating lakes that fill former valleys
and canyons, etc.
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
1. Commissioning of Large Dams
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
Before 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s
1900
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
2. Hydrogen and Fuel Cells
■ Hydrogen
•
•
•
•
•
Considered to be the cleanest fuel.
Compose 90% of the matter of the universe.
Non polluting (combustion emits only water and heat).
Highest level of energy content.
Almost three times more than methane.
■ Nuclear fusion
• Currently researched but without much success.
• It offers unlimited potential.
• Not realistically going to be a viable source of energy in the
foreseeable future.
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
2. Hydrogen and Fuel Cells
■ Storage issues
• Hydrogen is a highly combustive gas.
• Find a way to safely store it, especially in a vehicle.
■ Delivery issues
•
•
•
•
Distribution from producers to consumers.
Production and storage facilities.
Structures and methods for transporting hydrogen.
Fueling stations for hydrogen-powered applications.
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
2. Hydrogen and Fuel Cells
■ Hydrogen production
Fossil Fuels
Steam
Reforming
Water
Electrolysis
• Not naturally occurring;
secondary energy resources.
• Producing sufficient quantities to
satisfy the demand.
• Extraction from fossil fuels:
• From natural gas.
• Steam reforming.
• Electrolysis of water:
Biomass
Pyrolysis
• Electricity from fossil fuels not a
environmentally sound
alternative.
• Electricity from solar or wind
energy is a better alternative.
• Pyrolysis of the biomass:
• Decomposing by heat in an
oxygen-reduced atmosphere.
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
2. Hydrogen and Fuel Cells
■ Main potential uses
• Transportation:
• Most likely replacement for the internal combustion engine.
• Efficiency levels are between 55% and 65%.
• Stationary power stations:
• Connected to the electric grid; supplemental power and backup.
• Grid-independent generator.
• Telecommunications:
• Reliable power for telecom systems (e.g. cell phone towers,
internet servers).
• Micro Power:
• For consumer electronics (e.g. cell phones and portable
computers).
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
3. Biomass
■ Nature
• Biomass energy involves the growing of crops for fuel
rather than for food.
• Crops can be burned directly to release heat or be
converted to useable fuels such methane, ethanol, or
hydrogen.
• Has been around for many millennia.
• Not been used as a large-scale energy source:
• 14% of all energy used comes from biomass fuels.
• 65% of all wood harvested is burned as a fuel.
• 2.4 billion people rely on primitive biomass for cooking and
heating.
• Important only in developing countries.
• Asia and Africa: 75% of wood fuels use.
• US: 5% comes from biomass sources.
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
3. Energy Consumption, Solid biomass (includes fuel wood) 2001
Mexico
Myanmar
France
Philippines
Canada
Sudan
Kenya
Tanzania
South Africa
Thailand
Congo, Dem Rep
Ethiopia
Viet Nam
Pakistan
Brazil
Indonesia
United States
Nigeria
India
China
0
50000
100000
150000
200000
250000
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
3. Global Biomass
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
3. Biomass
■ Biofuels
• Fuel derived from organic matter.
• Development of biomass conversion technologies:
• Alcohols (ethanol) and methane the most useful.
• First generation biofuels:
• Food-based.
• Plant materials like corn, starch or sugar from cane.
• Second generation biofuels:
• Cellulosic based.
• Waste materials like plant stalks composed of cellulose.
■ Requirements for sustainable biomass use
• Production of biomass through low input levels:
• Labor, fuel, fertilizers and pesticides.
• Production of biomass on low value land.
• Low energy of conversion into biofuels.
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
3. Biomass Energy Sources
Sources
Fuels
Uses
Forest products
Wood, woodchips
Direct burning or charcoal
Agricultural residues
Husks, shells, stems
Direct burning
Energy crops
Sugarcane, corn
Ethanol, gasification
Trees
Palm oil
Biodiesel
Animal residues
Manure
Methane
Urban wastes
Waste paper, organic wastes
Direct burning, methane
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
3. Global Ethanol Production, 1975-2009 (million gallons)
20,000
18,000
16,000
14,000
12,000
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
2,000
0
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
4. Solar Energy
■ Definition
• Radiant energy emitted by the sun.
• Large amount of solar energy reaching the Earth’s surface.
• 10 weeks of solar energy equivalent to all known fossil fuel
reserves.
■ Advantages
•
•
•
•
Widely available energy source.
Limited environmental footprint.
Limited maintenance.
Affordable.
■ Drawbacks
• Limitations in temporal availability (e.g. night).
• Reconversion of existing facilities.
• Can be capital intensive for large projects.
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
4. Global Solar Energy Potential
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
4. Solar Energy
■ Photovoltaic systems
• Semiconductors to convert solar radiation into electricity.
• Better suited for limited uses that do not require large
amounts of electricity.
• Costs have declined substantially:
• 9-10 cents per kilowatt-hour.
• Compared to about 3-5 cents for coal fired electrical power.
• Economies of scale could then be realized in production of
the necessary equipment.
• Roofs of buildings (e.g. warehouses) suitable locations to
effectively install solar panels.
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Solar Energy Consumption (Terawatt-hours), 1990-2011
50
45
40
35
China
Japan
Spain
Italy
Germany
US
30
25
20
15
10
5
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
0
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
5. Wind Power
■ Potential use
• Growing efficiency of wind turbines.
• New windfarms are located at sea along the coast:
• The wind blows harder and more steadily.
• Does not consume valuable land.
• No protests against wind parks marring the landscape.
• United States:
• The USA could generate 25% of its energy needs from wind power
by installing wind farms on just 1.5% of the land.
• North Dakota, Kansas, and Texas have enough harnessable wind
energy to meet electricity needs for the whole country.
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
5. Wind Power
• Farms are a good place to implement wind mills:
• A quarter of a acre can earn about $2,000 a year in royalties from
wind electricity generation.
• That same quarter of an acre can only generate $100 worth or
corn.
• Farmland could simultaneously be used for agriculture and energy
generation.
• Wind energy could be used to produce hydrogen.
■ Limitations
• Extensive infrastructure and land requirements.
• 1980: 40 cents per kwh.
• 2001: 3-4 cents per kwh.
• Less reliable than other sources of energy.
• Inexhaustible energy source that can supply both
electricity and fuel.
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Cumulative Installed Wind Power Capacity in Top Ten Countries
and the World, 1980-2011 (Megawatts)
70,000
60,000
50,000
U.S.
Germany
China
Spain
India
Italy
France
U.K.
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
2010
2008
2006
2004
2002
2000
1998
1996
1994
1992
1990
1988
1986
1984
1982
1980
0
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue