TACTICS USED TO INCREASE SPEAKER
REPERTOIRE FOR A ‘TACTS WILD
ANIMALS’ PROGRAMME
STACEY GOODMAN
JIGSAW CABAS® SCHOOL &
NICHOLLS STATE UNIVERSITY
Literature review

Acquiring language is often difficult for those with
developmental disorders such as autism spectrum
disorder. Being able to tact items from in and
around the environment is an important exchange
of communication for those with limited verbal
behavior. By identifying ones environmental
surroundings such as animals, things that we see in
books and via other forms of media, can broaden
communicative opportunities for those with special
educational needs. Evidence from research carried
out on tact instruction has shown that it can
increase the number of pure mands and tacts in
non-instructional settings. Pistoljevic and Greer
(2006) studied the effects of intensive tact
instruction on the number of tacts emitted in a noninstructional setting. Their results showed that after
mastery of 5 different sets of stimuli, the
intervention increased vocal verbal operants across
the three participants, particularly pure tacts and
results showed a functional relationship. A similar
study also supports this evidence, Pereira-Delgado
and Oblak (2007) also showed a functional
relationship between tact presentation and
increasing pure mands and tacts in noninstructional settings. Results from both these
studies indicate that where there is a lack of pure
mands and tacts for a child, particularly those with
developmental delays, the exposure to tact
contingencies should be increased.
Literature review

continued
The tactic used throughout this study is the
learn unit. Learn units consist of three term
contingencies; it is the least divisible
component if instruction that incorporates both
pupil and teacher interaction and it predicts new
stimulus control for the pupil (Greer, 1994a).
The three terms of the learn unit involves an
antecedent, a behaviour and a consequence
(Greer & McDonough, 1999; Greer, 2002).
An example of this can be seen when the
teacher or a computer, under the control of the
teacher, presents clear and complete
instructions (antecedent), the pupil responds
accordingly, and the teacher then delivers a
consequence, which comes in the form of either
reinforcement (praise, points, ticks) or an error
correction procedure. Studies have shown that
pupils learn four to seven times more when
learn units are in place than when they are
absent or incomplete (Albers & Greer, 1991;
Ingham & Greer, 1992; Selinske et al., 1991).
Previous research conducted to evaluate the
learn unit concludes that it is a fundamental
measurement of instruction; it can predict pupil
learning and allows a measurement for effective
and ineffective instruction. The criteria used
were based on decision protocol. Greer (2002)
and Keohane and Greer’s (2005) decision
protocol states that criteria for short term
objectives is set at 18/20 or, 90% or higher
where increments of 20 learn units are not
possible, over two consecutive sessions.
According to the decision protocol, data can
have an ascending, descending or no trends and
these can be variable or stable. If after three
data paths there is a stable ascend or after five
data paths there is a variable ascend the
program continues without the need for a tactic
input. However, if after three data paths there is
a stable descend or after five variable data paths
a no trend or variable descend is seen, a tactic is
introduced.
Participant

The participant was 9 year old boy who had a diagnosis consistent with autism
spectrum disorder.

He was a listener, speaker, emergent reader and emergent writer and attended a
CABAS® school in England.

The programme taught was to increase the pupils speaker repertoire, the long term
objective was to independently wild animals using 2D stimuli.
Summary of Method -Variables

The dependent variable was the tact of the wild animal item, presented in 2D
colour-picture format,

The independent variable was the implementation of the learn unit.
Summary of MethodDecision Protocol and Criteria

The data in this programme were graphed following the decision protocol and
criteria for short term objectives were set at 18/20 over 2 sessions. According to the
decision protocol, data can have an ascending, descending or no trends and these
can be variable or stable. If after three data paths there is a stable ascend or after
five data paths there is a variable ascend the program continues without the need
for a tactic input. However, if after three data paths there is a stable descend or
after five variable data paths a no trend or variable descend is seen, a tactic is
introduced (Greer, R.D., 2002; Keohane,D-D., & Greer, R.D., 2005).
Summary of MethodTactic and reinforcement

The learn unit was the tactic used through phases 1-5. The antecedent stimulus was
presentation of the tact picture by the teacher, the pupil responded to this
instruction, the teacher consequated a correct response with reinforcement ‘highfives’ and vocal praise ‘well done’ or ‘that’s right’. If an incorrect response was
given the antecedent stimulus was represented and a correction was vocally given.
After five consecutive learn units, the pupil was also given the opportunity to move
towards reinforcement time on a group contingency board.
Summary of MethodProcedure



Phase 1 the learn unit was presented as
described above and after five data paths the
results showed an ascending trend and the
decision was made to continue with the
learn unit tactic presentation. After a further
one data point the pupil met criterion and a
contingency shaped decision was made to
move onto the next targets.
Phase 2 instructed two new stimuli targets,
Flamingo and Ostrich, for the purpose of

tact. After five data paths an ascending trend
was tacted and the short term objective
continued. After a further five data paths a
variable trend was tacted and a verbally
mediated decision was agreed due to the
similarities of the target stimuli being

presented.
Phase 3 implemented a change of one of the
wild animals to be presented. It was decided
that Flamingo and Gorilla would be
presented together as targets. A variable
trend was tacted after five data paths and a
no trend was tacted. A verbally mediated
decision was made and the problem in the
learn unit was tacted as the antecedent.
Presentation of Gorilla stimuli would stay
and a change of target wild bird would be
used. This decision was not successful and
after one data point the phase was ended and
the decision was to change the antecedent.
In phase 4 the targets remained the same,
presentation of learn units were to be in
blocks of no more than five and different
media presentations of the targets should be
used; for example, books, internet and
whiteboard presentations.
The data during this phase, phase 5, showed
an ascending trend after five data paths and
after a further three data paths the pupil met
criterion.
References
Albers, A.E., & Greer, R.D. (1991). Is the three-term contingency trial a predictor of effective instruction? Journal of Behavioral Education, 1, 337-354.
Greer, R. D., (1994a). A systems analysis of the behaviors of schooling. Journal of Behavioral Education, 4, 255-264.
Greer, R.D. (2002). Designing Teaching Strategies: An Applied Behavior Analysis System Approach. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Greer, R. D., & McDonough, S. H. (1999). Is the learn unit the fundamental measure of pedagogy? The Behavior Analyst, 22, 5-16.
Ingham, P., & Greer, R. D. (1992). Changes in student and teacher responses in observed and generalized settings as a function of supervision observations.
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 153-164.
Keohane, D., & Greer, R.D. (2005). Teachers use of verbally governed algorithm and student learning. Journal of Behavioral and Consultation Therapy, 1 (3),
249-259.
Pereira Delgado, J.A., & Oblak, M. (2007). The effects of daily intensive tact instruction on the emission of pure mands and tacts in non-instructional settings
by three preschool children with developmental delays. Journal of Early and Intensive Behavior Intervention, 4, 392-411.
Pistoljevic, N., & Greer, R.D. (2006). The effects of daily intensive tact instruction on pre-school students’ emission of pure tacts and mands in noninstructional settings. Journal of Early and Intensive Behavior Intervention, 3, 103-119.
Selinske, J.E., Greer, R.D. & Lodhi, S. (1991). A functional analysis of the comprehensive application of behavioral analysis to schooling. Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis, 24,107-117.
The number of correct responses to learn units presented
20
19
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15
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11
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7
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Phase 1
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Phase 2
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Phase 3
Ph Phase 5
as
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9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34
Sessions
Figure 1: The number of correct responses to learn units presented across sessions during a tact
wild animals programme.
Teacher Decision Opportunities
Date of review: 27th March 2012 to 27th September 2012
Pupil: Arnav A
Programme: Tacts Wild Animals
Decision Rationale
Phase 1

Opportunities- the first opportunity for a decision to be made was after six data points when the data trend
was an ascend. The data ranged from 6-19 correct responses out of 20 learn units presented per session. The
second opportunity for a decision was made was one data point after the first decision opportunity. The
pupil had reached criterion at 19 correct responses out of 20 learn units presented.

Strategic questions- No

Related tactics- the learn unit

Level of Verbal behavior- contingency shaped
Phase 2

Opportunities- the first opportunity for a decision to be made was after six data points when the data trend
was tacted ascend. The data ranged from 0-11 correct responses to 20 learn units presented. The second
opportunity was tacted after six data points the data paths were variable and was tacted as a no trend. The
data ranged from 11-15 correct responses out of 20 learn units presented.

Strategic questions- Yes. Where was the problem in the learn unit? The problem in the learn unit was tacted
as being the antecedent. The wild animals were too familiar, both large birds of a similar shape, Flamingo
and Ostrich. The decision was to change one wild animal 2D picture (Gorilla) and keep the other
(Flamingo), interspersing mastered tacts and putting those learn units in probes. This decision was incorrect
as shown in phase 4 was not very successful.

Related tactics- the learn unit

Level of Verbal behavior- verbally mediated.
Phase 3

Opportunities- the first opportunity for a decision to be made was after six data points when the data had arrived at a no trend.
The data ranged from 3-9 correct responses out of 20 learn units presented per session.

Strategic questions- Yes. Where was the problem in the learn unit? The problem in the learn unit was tacted as being the
antecedent. The decision was to made to target a different wild bird and keep the existing non-bird animal picture.

Related tactics- the learn unit

Level of Verbal behavior- verbally mediated
Phase 4

Opportunities- the first opportunity for a decision to be made was at the first data point when the data was 0 correct responses
out of 20 learn units presented per session.

Strategic questions- Yes. Where was the problem in the learn unit? The problem in the learn unit was tacted as being the
motivation. However, the decision made was to change the presentation of the learn unit therefore the problem in the learn unit
was antecedent. The decision was made to keep the wild animal target the same as in the previous short term objective but use
different mediums of presentation of the stimuli such as in books, on the computer and on the whiteboard. The learn units were
to be interspersed throughout the day and not in blocks of more than five learn units at a time.

Related tactics- the learn unit

Level of Verbal behavior- verbally mediated
Phase 5

Opportunities- the first opportunity for a decision to be made was after six data points when the data showed an ascending
trend. The data ranged from 3-15 correct responses out of 20 learn units presented per session. The second decision was made
after four data points when the pupil met criterion. The data ranged from 14-18 correct responses out of 20 learn units
presented per session.

Strategic questions- No

Related tactics- the learn unit

Level of Verbal behavior- contingency shaped
Teacher Decisions Correct/Incorrect
Date of review: 27th March 2012 to 27th September 2012
Pupil: Arnav A
Programme: Tacts Wild Animals
# Opportunites 5
# Correct 5
# Incorrect 0
# Correct 2
# Incorrect 1
Totals: 100% Correct 0% Incorrect
# Strategic Questions 3
Totals: 66.6% Correct 33.3% Incorrect
# Tactics 5
# Correct 5
# Incorrect 0
# Correct 2
# Incorrect 0
Totals: 100% Correct 0% Incorrect
# CS decisions 2
Totals: 100% Correct 0% Incorrect
# VM decisions 3
# Correct 2
Totals: 66.6% Correct 33.3% Incorrect
# Incorrect 1
#Graphing 5