1.
Know the following : a.
Know Symbols for Elements (see S1) b.
Rules for Significant Figures (see S2) c.
Diatomic Elements (see S3) d.
Common Polyatomic Ions and Their Charges (S4) e.
Strong Acids and Bases and Strong Electrolytes(S5) f.
Prefixes for Molecular Nomenclature (S6) g.
Metric System Prefixes (S7) h.
Base Units of the Metric System (S8) i.
Solubility Rules (S9) j.
Periodic Trends (S10) k.
Basic pH Information (S11) l.
Acid Nomenclature (S 12) m.
Electron Configurations Using Periodic Table (S13) n.
Safety Rules (S14) o.
Name and Proper Use of Laboratory Equipment. (S15)
2.
You should be able to write formulas and/or name compounds for: a.
Binary Ionic Compounds. b.
Binary Molecular Compounds c.
Ternary Ionic Compounds d.
Acids and Bases e.
Some hydrocarbons
3.
Be able to complete equations for reactions involving: a.
Combination b.
Decomposition c.
Single-replacement d.
Metathesis (precipitation) e.
Acid-base (neutralization) f.
Combustion g.
Net ionic and Redox reactions
4.
Use dimensional analysis to solve problems/stoichiometric calculations using balanced equations.

Know the name and symbol of elements. Know family names or groups.
Rules for counting significant figures are summarized below.
1.
Zeros within a number are always significant. Both 4308 and 40.05 contain four significant figures.
2.
Zeros that do nothing but set the decimal point are not significant. Thus, 470,000 has two significant figures.
3.
Trailing zeros that aren't needed to hold the decimal point are significant. For example, 4.00 has three significant figures.
4.
If you are not sure whether a digit is significant, assume that it isn't. For example, if the directions for an experiment read: "Add the sample to 400 mL of water," assume the volume of water is known to one significant figure.

Significant Figures continued:
When measurements are added or subtracted, the answer can contain no more
decimal places than the least accurate measurement.
150.0 g H
2
O
+ 0.507 g salt
150.5 g solution
When measurements are multiplied or divided, the answer can contain no more
significant figures than the least accurate measurement.
Example: To illustrate this rule, let's calculate the cost of the copper in an old penny that is pure copper. Let's assume that the penny has a mass of 2.531 grams, that it is essentially pure copper, and that the price of copper is 67 cents per pound. We can start by from grams to pounds.
We then use the price of a pound of copper to calculate the cost of the copper metal.
There are four significant figures in both the mass of the penny (2.531) and the number of grams in a pound (453.6). But there are only two significant figures in the price of copper, so the final answer can only have two significant figures.
Rounding Off
When the answer to a calculation contains too many significant figures, it must be rounded off.
There are 10 digits that can occur in the last decimal place in a calculation. One way of rounding off involves underestimating the answer for five of these digits (0, 1, 2, 3, and 4) and overestimating the answer for the other five (5, 6, 7, 8, and 9). This approach to rounding off is summarized as follows.
If the digit is smaller than 5, drop this digit and leave the remaining number unchanged.
Thus, 1.684 becomes 1.68.
If the digit is 5 or larger, drop this digit and add 1 to the preceding digit. Thus, 1.247 becomes 1.25.
Hydrogen (H
2
); Nitrogen (N
2
); Oxygen (O
2
); Fluorine (F
2
); Chlorine (Cl
2
); Bromine (Br
2
);
Iodine (I
2
)

The following polyatomic ions are arranged in related groups according, mostly, to the periodic table. In MEMORIZING these ions, look for similarities with in families. The suffix
X–ate is the common ion in a group of similar ions, X–ite means one oxygen less, hypo-x-ite two oxygens less, per-X-ate one oxygen more. The prefix thio- usually means an oxygen atom has been replaced with a sulfur atom (not always but usually).

3 hydrochloric acid nitric acid
hydrobromic acid
3 hydroiodic acid chloric acid
2
4 sulfuric acid
4 perchloric acid
lithium hydroxide
sodium hydroxide
potassium hydroxide
2 calcium hydroxide
rubidium hydroxide
2 strontium hydroxide
cesium hydroxide
2 barium hydroxide

This is a usual type of binary compound composed of two nonmetals. Such a compound is named by using a Greek prefix designating the number of atoms for the elements in the formula. Note that the Greek prefix "mono-" is not used with the first element, just the second. Also, end the name of the second element in "ide".
Greek Prefixes mono- di- tri- tetra- penta- hexa- hepta- octa- nona- deca- hendeka- dodeka-
8
9
10
4
5
6
7
Number
1
2
3
11
12
To help the SI units apply to a wide range of phenomena, the 19th General Conference on
Weights and Measures in 1991 extended the list of metric prefixes so that it reaches from yotta- at 10 24 (one septillion) to yocto- at 10 -24 (one septillionth). Here are the metric prefixes, with their numerical equivalents stated in the American system for naming large numbers: yotta- (Y-) 10 24 1 septillion zetta- (Z-) 10 21 1 sextillion exa- (E-) peta- (P-) tera- (T-)
10
10
10
18
15
12
1 quintillion
1 quadrillion
1 trillion

giga- (G-) 10 9 1 billion mega- (M-) 10 6 1 million kilo- (k-) 10 3 1 thousand hecto- (h-) 10 2 1 hundred deka- (da-)** 10 1 ten deci- (d-) 10 -1 1 tenth centi- (c-) 10 -2 1 hundredth milli- (m-) 10 -3 1 thousandth micro- (µ-) 10 -6 1 millionth nano- (n-) 10 -9 1 billionth pico- (p-) 10 -12 1 trillionth femto- (f-) 10 -15 1 quadrillionth atto- (a-) 10 -18 1 quintillionth zepto- (z-) 10 -21 1 sextillionth yocto- (y-) 10 -24 1 septillionth
BASE UNIT - meter (m) - LENGTH
Up until 1983 the meter was defined as 1,650,763.73 wavelengths in a vacuum of the orange-red line of the spectrum of krypton-86. And since then it is determined to be the distance traveled by light in a vacuum in 1/299,792,45 of a second.
BASE UNIT - second (s) – TIME
The second is defined as the duration of 9,192,631,770 cycles of the radiation associated with a specified transition of the cesium-133 atom.
BASE UNIT - kilogram (kg) – MASS
The standard for the kilogram is a cylinder of platinum-iridium alloy kept by the
International Bureau of Weights and Measures in Paris. A duplicate at the National Bureau of Standards serves as the mass standard for the United States. The kilogram is the only base unit defined by a physical object.

BASE UNIT - Kelvin (K) and °Celsius (°C) - TEMPERATURE
The Kelvin is defined as the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water; that is, the point at which water forms an interface of solid, liquid and vapor. This is defined as 0.01 °C on the Celsius scale and 32.02 °F on the Fahrenheit scale.
The temperature zero K (Kelvin) is called "absolute zero".
BASE UNIT - ampere (A) - ELECTRIC CURRENT
The ampere is defined as that current that, if maintained in each of two long parallel wires separated by one meter in free space, would produce a force between the two wires (due to their magnetic fields) of 2 x 10 -7 N (newton) for each meter of length. (a Newton is the unit of force that when applied to one kilogram mass would experience an acceleration of one meter per second, per second).
BASE UNIT - candela (cd) - LUMINOUS INTENSITY
The candela is defined as the luminous intensity of 1/600,000 of a square meter of a cavity at the temperature of freezing platinum (2,042 K).
BASE UNIT - mole - (mol) AMOUNT OF SUBSTANCE
The mole is the amount of substance of a system that contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon-12.
BASE UNIT – liter - (L) VOLUME OF A SUBSTANCE (THIS IS A DERIVED UNIT)
4+
3-
4-
3-
2
3
2-
-
-
-
+
2+
22+
42-
+
2+
2+
2+
22+
2+

-
4+
2+
2+
2+
43-
32-
32-
2-
4+
The atomic radius is the distance from the atomic nucleus to the outermost stable electron orbital in an atom that is at equilibrium. The atomic radius tends to decrease as one progresses across a period because the effective nuclear charge increases, thereby attracting the orbiting electrons and lessening the radius. The atomic radius usually increases while going down a group due to the addition of a new energy level (shell). However, diagonally, the number of protons has a larger effect than the sizeable radius. For example, lithium (145 pm) has a smaller atomic radius than magnesium (150 pm). Atomic radii decrease left to right across a period, and also increase top to bottom down a group.

The ionization potential (or the ionization energy) is the minimum energy required to remove one electron from each atom in a mole of atoms in the gaseous state. The first
ionization energy is the energy required to remove one, the nth ionization energy is the energy required to remove the atom's nth electron, after the (n−1) electrons before it have been removed. Trend-wise, ionization potentials tend to increase while one progresses across a period because the greater number of protons (higher nuclear charge) attract the orbiting electrons more strongly, thereby increasing the energy required to remove one of the electrons. There will be an increase of ionization energy from left to right of a given
period and a decrease from top to bottom.
The electron affinity of an atom can be described either as the energy gained by an atom when an electron is added to it, or conversely as the energy required to detach an electron from a singly-charged anion. As one progresses from left to right across a period, the electron
affinity will increase, due to the larger attraction from the nucleus, and the atom "wanting" the electron more as it reaches maximum stability. Down a group, the electron affinity
decreases because of a large increase in the atomic radius, electron-electron repulsion and the shielding effect of inner electrons against the valence electrons of the atom.
Electronegativity is a measure of the ability of an atom or molecule to attract pairs of electrons in the context of a chemical bond. The type of bond formed is largely determined by the difference in electronegativity between the atoms involved, using the Pauling scale. Trendwise, as one moves from left to right across a period in the periodic table, the
electronegativity increases due to the stronger attraction that the atoms obtain as the nuclear charge increases. Moving down a group, the electronegativity decreases due to the longer distance between the nucleus and the valence electron shell, thereby decreasing the attraction, making the atom have less of an attraction for electrons or protons.
Metallic character refers to the chemical properties associated with elements classified as metals. These properties, which arise from the element's ability to lose electrons, are: the displacement of hydrogen from dilute acids; the formation of basic oxides; the formation of ionic chlorides; and their reduction reaction, as in the thermite process. As one moves across
a period from left to right in the periodic table, the metallic character decreases, as the atoms are more likely to gain electrons to fill their valence shell rather than to lose them to remove the shell. Down a group, the metallic character increases, due to the lesser attraction from the nucleus to the valence electrons (in turn due to the atomic radius), thereby allowing easier loss of the electrons or protons.

-For simplicity, the acids that we will be concerned with naming are really just a special class of ionic compounds where the cation is always H + . So if the formula has hydrogen written first, then this usually indicates that the hydrogen is an H + cation and that the compound is an acid. When dissolved in water, acids produce H + ions (also called protons, since removing the single electron from a neutral hydrogen atom leaves behind one proton).
 Since all these acids have the same cation, H + , we don't need to name the cation.
 The acid name comes from the root name of the anion name.
 The prefix hydro- and the suffix -ic are then added to the root name of the anion.
, which contains the anion chloride, is called
, which contains the anion cyanide, is called
 Since all these acids have the same cation, H + , we don't need to name the cation.
 The acid name comes from the root name of the oxyanion name or the central element of
 the oxyanion.
Suffixes are used based on the ending of the original name of the oxyanion. If the name of the polyatomic anion ended with -ate, change it to -ic for the acid and if it ended with -ite, change it to -ous in the acid.
3 , which contains the polyatomic ion nitrate, is called
2 , which contains the polyatomic ion nitrite, is called

The primary determinant of an element's chemical properties is its electron configuration, particularly the valence shell electrons. For instance, any atoms with four valence electrons occupying p orbitals will exhibit some similarity. The type of orbital in which the atom's outermost electrons reside determines the "block" to which it belongs. The number of valence shell electrons determines the family, or group, to which the element belongs.
The total number of electron shells an atom has determines the period to which it belongs.
Each shell is divided into different subshells, which as atomic number increases are filled in roughly this order (the Aufbau principle):
Subshell: S G F D P
Period
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1s
2s
3s
4s
5s
2p
3p
3d 4p
4d 5p
4f 5d 6p 6s
7s 5f 6d 7p
8s 5g 6f 7d 8p 8
Hence, the structure of the table. Since the outermost electrons determine chemical properties, those with the same number of valence electrons are grouped together.

• Remove all flammable and combustible materials from the lab bench and surrounding work area when Bunsen burners will be used. Do NOT use a Bunsen burner in any lab when working with flammable liquids or solvents.
• Review the basic construction of a Bunsen burner and inspect the burner, attached tubing, and gas valve before use. Check for holes or cracks in the tubing and replace the tubing if necessary.
• Use only heat-resistant, borosilicate glassware when using a Bunsen burner. Check the glassware for scratches, nicks or cracks before use and discard defective glassware— cracked glassware may shatter without warning when heated.
• Wear chemical-splash goggles whenever working with chemicals, heat or glassware in the science lab. Tie back long hair when working with a Bunsen burner, and do not wear loose, long-sleeved clothing. Never reach over an exposed flame!
• Never leave a lit burner unattended. Always turn off the gas at the gas source when finished using a Bunsen burner.
• To reduce heat stress, allow hot glassware or equipment to cool slowly before moving or removing the object. Remember that hot objects remain HOT for a very long time—use tongs and handle with care!
Hot plates offer convenience and important safety benefits for use in preparing hot water baths for mild to moderate heating.
• Use only heat-resistant, borosilicate glassware, and check for cracks before heating on a hot plate. Do not place thick-walled glassware, such as filter flasks, or soft-glass bottles and jars on a hot plate. The hot plate surface should be larger than the vessel being heated.
• Do not use the hot plate in the presence of flammable or combustible materials. Fire or explosion may result—the device contains components that may ignite such material.
• Place boiling stones in liquids being heated to facilitate even heating and boiling. Do not evaporate all of the solvent or otherwise heat a mixture to dryness on a hot plate—the glass may crack unexpectedly when heated directly on a hot plate.
• Use a medium to medium-high setting of the hot plate to heat most liquids, including water. Do not use the high setting to heat low-boiling liquids. The hot plate surface can reach a maximum temperature of 540 °C.
• Do not place metal foil or metal containers on the hot plate—the top can be damaged and a shock hazard may result.
• Be careful when removing hot glassware or pouring hot liquids from the hot plate. Use tongs or silicone rubber heat protectors (gripping devices).

All flammable liquids found in school environments are also organic compounds. Their principal hazard is flammability. Many are also slightly toxic by inhalation and are body tissue irritants. Mild headaches or dizziness may be a symptom of overexposure to an organic vapor. Good ventilation is highly recommended whenever volatile organic compounds are used. Always wear chemical splash goggles, chemical-resistant gloves, and chemical-resistant apron whenever using flammable liquids. Consult current Material
Safety Data Sheets for specific safety, handling, and disposal information.
Concentrated acids are strongly corrosive to all body tissue, especially eyes and skin.
Concentrated acids are highly toxic due to their extreme corrosiveness. Hydrochloric and acetic acids are also toxic by inhalation. Other hazards are presented in this review. Always wear chemical splash goggles, chemical- resistant gloves, and a chemical- resistant apron whenever using concentrated acids or acid solutions.
Label all prepared acid solutions before storing them with at least the name of the acid, concentration, and date prepared on the label.
Concentrated hydrochloric acid fumes continuously and cannot be stored without releasing hydrochloric acid fumes. Use proper ventilation when handling this product.
These fumes are responsible for most of the corrosion damage in a chemical storeroom.
Storing hydrochloric acid in a wood acid cabinet is a must. Hydrochloric acid fumes will quickly corrode metal cabinets.
Nitric acid is a strong oxidizing agent. Concentrated nitric acid must be stored in a separate liquid-tight compartment within an acid cabinet. If nitric acid is mixed with a flammable organic compound, such as acetic acid, the heat from the oxidation and neutralization reactions is enough to ignite the flammable material. Nitric acid will also slowly destroy plastic bottles. Always use glass bottles for storing nitric acid. Nitric acid may turn yellow over time because of the release of nitrogen dioxide on exposure to light.
The yellow color does not affect the product’s usefulness in the school laboratory.
Glacial acetic acid is a flammable liquid. It should be stored in an acid cabinet, but in a location isolated from possible contact with nitric acid. Glacial acetic acid freezes at 16.6 °C; the material may crystallize in a cool storeroom. If this occurs, allow the bottle to warm up to ambient (25 °C) temperature.
Concentrated sulfuric acid is a strong dehydrating agent. Because of its strong ability to remove water, it reacts violently with many organic materials such as sugar, wood, and paper. If sulfuric acid has turned brown, it has probably been contaminated with an organic material and its purity should be in question.

A contingency plan on how to handle chemical spills should be part of every school’s
Chemical Hygiene Plan. The following procedure is an example of a contingency plan.
1.
Quickly assess the spill, its hazards, and the danger to yourself and other students and take appropriate action. If the spilled chemicals are unknown, assume the worst and evacuate.
2.
Notify your teacher immediately or other personnel in the building of the accident, and if necessary, evacuate the area. The safety of you and other students is always the top priority.
3.
Tend to any injured or contaminated person as per contingency plan. If the chemical is splashed into an eye or onto skin, immediately irrigate using an eyewash or shower. If the chemical is splashed on your clothes, you may have time to first contain the spill with a fire blanket or spill control materials (such as sand, kitty litter, absorbent, etc) and then treat yourself. Remember, if you use a safety shower near a chemical spill, the water may expand the spill area.
• Always seek professional medical attention upon exposure to any hazardous chemical, especially concentrated acids.
• The best first aid for any chemical exposure to body tissue or eyes is immediate dilution with water.
• If an acid is splashed in the eyes, use an eyewash to irrigate the eyes for at least 15–20 minutes. Make sure the eyelids are held open to properly irrigate them. Ask the victim to look up, down, and sideways to better reach all parts of the eye.
• If an acid is splashed onto bare skin, rinse with water for at least 15–20 minutes.
• If an acid is splashed onto clothing, remove the clothing immediately before the acid soaks through the clothing and reacts with the skin. If an acid splashes onto your skin and clothing, immediately begin rinsing the affected skin with water (safety shower is ideal) and then begin to remove affected clothing. Modesty must take a back seat to the potential chemical burns that can occur.
The chemistry laboratory can be a place of discovery and learning. However, by the very nature of laboratory work, it can be a place of danger if proper common-sense precautions aren't taken. While every effort has been made to eliminate the use of explosive, highly toxic, and carcinogenic substances from the experiments which you will perform, there is a certain unavoidable hazard associated with the use of a variety of chemicals and glassware.
You are expected to learn and adhere to the following general safety guidelines to ensure a safe laboratory environment for both yourself and the people you may be working near.
Additional safety precautions will be announced in class prior to experiments where a potential danger exists. Students who fail to follow all safety rules may be asked to leave the lab and suffer grading penalties.

Attire
1.
Safety goggles must be worn at all times while in the laboratory. This rule must be followed whether you are actually working on an experiment or simply writing in your lab notebook. You must wear safety goggles provided by the chemistry department.
2.
Contact lenses are not allowed. Even when worn under safety goggles, various fumes may accumulate under the lens and cause serious injuries or blindness.
3.
Closed toe shoes and long pants must be worn in the lab. Sandals and shorts are not allowed.
4.
Long hair must be tied back when using open flames.
Conduct
4.
Eating, drinking, and smoking are strictly prohibited in the laboratory.
5.
No unauthorized experiments are to be performed. If you are curious about trying a procedure not covered in the experimental procedure, consult with your laboratory instructor.
6.
Never taste anything. Never directly smell the source of any vapor or gas; instead by means of your cupped hand, waft a small sample to your nose. Do not inhale these vapors but take in only enough to detect an odor if one exists.
7.
Coats, backpacks, etc., should not be left on the lab benches and stools. There is a hook rack along the back wall at either end of the lab. There are coat racks just inside the each entrance to the balance room at the back of the lab. Beware that lab chemicals can destroy personal possessions.
8.
Always wash your hands before leaving lab.
9.
Learn where the safety and first-aid equipment is located. This includes fire extinguishers, fire blankets, and eye-wash stations.
10.
Notify the instructor immediately in case of an accident.
Proper Handling of Chemicals and Equipment
11.
Consider all chemicals to be hazardous unless you are instructed otherwise.
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) are available in lab for all chemicals in use.
These will inform you of any hazards and precautions of which you should be aware.
12.
Know what chemicals you are using. Carefully read the label twice before taking anything from a bottle. Chemicals in the lab are marked with NFPA hazardous materials diamond labels. Learn how to interpret these labels.
13.
Excess reagents are never to be returned to stock bottles. If you take too much, dispose of the excess.
14.
Many common reagents, for example, alcohols and acetone, are highly flammable.
Do not use them anywhere near open flames.
15.
Always pour acids into water. If you pour water into acid, the heat of reaction will cause the water to explode into steam, sometimes violently, and the acid will splatter.
16.
If chemicals come into contact with your skin or eyes, flush immediately with copious amounts of water and consult with your instructor.
17.
Never point a test tube or any vessel that you are heating at yourself or your neighbor--it may erupt like a geyser.

18.
Dispose of chemicals properly. Waste containers will be provided and their use will be explained by your TA. Unless you are explicitly told otherwise, assume that only water may be put in the lab sinks.
19.
Clean up all broken glassware immediately and dispose of the broken glass properly.
20.
Contact the stockroom for clean-up of mercury spills.
21.
Never leave burners unattended. Turn them off whenever you leave your workstation. Be sure that the gas is shut off at the bench rack when you leave the lab.
22.
Beware of hot glass--it looks exactly like cold glass.

The list that follows represents some of the most common pieces of lab equipment that will be used in the laboratory. More specific types of equipment will be presented later in the course.
Name Description Picture
Beaker Used to hold and heat liquids. Multipurpose and essential in the lab.
Bottle Bottles can be ued for storage, for mixing and for displaying.
Bunsen
Burner
Bunsen burners are used for heating and exposing items to flame.
They have many more uses than a hot plate, but do not replace a hot plate.
Buret
The buret is used in titrations to measure precisely how much liquid is used.
Crucible
Crucibles are used to heat small quantities to very high temperatures.
Erlenmeyer
Flask
The Erlenmeyer Flask is used to heat and store liquids. The advantage to the Erlenmeyer Flask is that the bottom is wider than the top so it will heat quicker because of the greater surface area exposed to the heat.

Evaporating
Dish
The Evaporating Dish is used to heat and evaporate liquids.
Florence Flask
The Florence Flask is used for heating subtances that need to be heated evenly. The bulbed bottom allows the heat to distribute through the liquid more evenly. The Florence Flask is mostly used in distillation experiments.
Food Coloring
Food Coloring is used in many experiments to show color change and to make the experiment more exciting.
Funnel
The Funnel is a piece of eqipment that is used in the lab but is not confined to the lab. The funnel can be used to target liguids into any container so they will not be lost or spilled.
Microspatula
The Microspatula, commonly called a spatula, is used for moving small amounts of solid from place to place.
Mortar and
Pestle
The Mortar and Pestle are used to crush solids into powders for experiments, usually to better dissolve the solids.
Paper Towels
Paper Towels are essential to the lab environment. They will be used in almost every lab.

Pipet
The pipet is used for moving small amounts of liquid from place to place. They are usually made of plastic and are disposable
Ring Stand
Ring stands are used to hold items being heated. Clamps or rings can be used so that items may be placed above the lab table for heating by bunsen burners or other items.
Stir Rod
The stir rods are used to stir things. They are usually made of glass.
Stir Rods are very useful in the lab setting.
Stopper
Stoppers come in many different sizes. The sizes are from 0 to 8.
Stoppers can have holes for thermometers and for other probes that may be used.
Test
Brush tube
The test tube brush is used to easily clean the inside of a test tube.
Test
Holder tube The holder is used to hold test tubes when they are hot and untouchable.
Test tube Rack
The testtube rack is used to hold testtubes while reactions happen in them or while they are not needed.

Thermometer
The thermometer is used to take temperature of solids, liquids, and gases. They are usually in o C, but can also be in o F
Tongs
Tongs are used to hold many different things such as flasks, crucibles, and evaporating dishes when they are hot.
Triangle
The triangle is used to hold crucibles when they are being heated.
They usually sit on a ring stand
Volumetric
Flask
The Volumetric flask is used to measure one specific volume. They are mostly used in mixing solutions where a one liter or one-half liter is needed.
Watch Glass
The watch glass is used to hold solids when being weighed or transported. They should never be heated.