Mauritius
Office of the United Nations Resident Coordinator
Mauritius
May 2000
List of Abbreviations
ACP
BOT
CBI
CEDAW
African, Caribbean and Pacific Countries associated with the EC.
Build, Operate, Transfer
Cross Border Initiative
Countries on the elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against
Women
CHA
Central Housing Authority
COMESA
Common Market for Eastern and Southern African States
CPE
Certificate of Primary Education
CRC
Child Right Convention
CSO
Central Statistical Office
DBM
Development Bank of Mauritius
EIP
Environmental Investment Programme
EPZ
Export Processing Zone
FDI
Foreign Direct Inve stment
GATT
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
GDFCF
Gross Domestic Fixed Capital Formation
GDP
Gross Domestic Product
GEF
Global Environment Facility
GEM
Gender Empowerment Index
GDI
Gender Development Index
HDI
Human Development Index
ILO
International Labour Organisation
IMF
International Monetary Fund
IRA
Industrial Relations Act
IMO
International Maritime Organization
IOR
Indian Ocean Rim
IOR-ARC
Indian Ocean Rim - Association of Regional Coorperation
IVTB
Industrial and Vocational Training Board
MBC
Mauritius Broadcasting Corperation
MEPD
Ministry of Economic Planning and Development
MFPA
Mauritius Family Planning Association
MEPZA
Mauritius Export Processing Zone Authority
MESR
Ministry of Education and Scientific Research
MHC
Mauritius Housing Corperation
MNC
Multi National Company
MOE
Ministry of Environment, Human Resource, Development and Employment
MOH
Ministry of Health and Quality of Life
MRC
Mauritius Research Council
MSB
Mauritius Standards Bureau
MWFWCD Ministry of Women, Family Welfare and Child Development
NCC
National Children Council
NCD
Non Communicable Disease
NEC
National Environment Commission
NEAP
NGAP
NGO
NHDC
NLTPS
PEL
PGA
POA
ROEA
SADC
SIDS
SME
SMIDO
UNDCP
VAT
WTO
National Environment Action Programme
National Gender Action Plan
Non Governmental Organisation
National Housing Development Company
National Long Term Perspective Study
Plan Epargne Logement
Public Gathering Act
Public Order Act
Regional Office for East Africa
Southern African Development Coorperation
Small Island Development States
Small and Medium Enterprise
Small and Medium Industry Development Organisation
United Nations Drug Control Programme
Value Added Tax
World Trade Organisation
COMMON COUNTRY ASSESSMENT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ....................................................................1
INTRODUCTION: SETTING A GLOBAL AGENDA FOR CHANGE
....................................................................................... ...............................12
1.0 THE HUMAN RIGHTS BASED APPROACH............................. 16
1.1 Evolution in Policy Approaches .............................................................................. 16
1.2 International Human Rights Instruments ................................................................. 16
1.2.1 The Constitution of Mauritius.......................................................................... 17
1.2.2 International Treaty Obligations ...................................................................... 18
1.2.3 Government Response to Global Conferences ................................................ 19
1.2.4 Amendments to the 1968 Constitution ............................................................ 20
1.2.5 Other Changes in Legislation Related to Human Rights Issues ...................... 21
1.2.6 Rights of Workers ............................................................................................ 22
1.3 Key issues for future intervention............................................................................ 22
2.0 THE ECONOMY.......................................................................... 24
2.1 General Overview................................................................................................... 24
2.2 Macroeconomic Trends............................................................................................ 25
2.2.1 Annual growth and unemployment.................................................................. 25
2.2.2 Savings and investment.................................................................................... 25
2.2.3 Current account deficits and foreign exchange reserves.................................. 26
2.2.4 Government budgetary balance and inflation rate ........................................... 27
2.2.5 Traditional Economic sectors........................................................................... 27
2.2.6 Emerging Service Sector: Financial and Business Services ............................ 28
2.2.7 Development of Free Port Activities ............................................................... 28
2.3 Policy Options and Performance ............................................................................. 28
2.3.1 Mono-Crop Economy and Import Substitution Strategy................................. 29
2.3.2 Sugar Boom and Budgetary Expansion ........................................................... 29
2.3.3 Structural Adjustme nt and Fiscal Austerity..................................................... 29
2.3.4 FDI Led Export Promoting Strategy................................................................ 30
2.3.5 Social Development ......................................................................................... 30
2.4 Development Constraints ....................................................................................... 31
2.4.1 The Characteristics of the Mauritian Economy as a SIDS .............................. 31
2.4.2 Declining Agriculture ...................................................................................... 32
2.4.3 Manufacturing Sector: Structural Constraints ................................................. 33
2.4.4 Tourism sector.................................................................................................. 34
2.4.5 Financial Services, Off-Shore Banking and Information Technology ............ 35
2.5 Emerging Challenges and Tasks Ahead .................................................................. 35
2.5.1 Maintaining Macroeconomic Stability ........................................................... 35
2.5.2 Responding to Globalisation............................................................................ 35
2.5.3 Expanding the Economic Space ....................................................................... 36
2.5.4 Strengthening Regional Integration Efforts ..................................................... 36
2.5.5 Trade in Services and IT .................................................................................. 37
2.5.6 Revitalising the EPZ Sector ............................................................................. 37
2.5.7 Developing Enterprise through SMEs ............................................................. 38
2.5.8 Credit facilities ................................................................................................. 38
2.5.9 Mixing grant with credit .................................................................................. 39
2.5.10 Upgrading Technical Skills............................................................................ 39
2.5.11 Raising Human Capability............................................................................. 40
2.6 Donor Interventions ................................................................................................. 40
2.6.1 Past and current interventions .......................................................................... 40
2.7 Potential Areas for the UN -System Involvement .................................................... 41
3.0 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT ........................................................... 43
3.1 International Instruments ......................................................................................... 43
3.1.1 World Social Summit ....................................................................................... 43
3.1.2 Employment ..................................................................................................... 43
3.1.3 Housing ............................................................................................................ 44
3.1.4 Cultural Diversity............................................................................................. 44
3.2 Government Strategies and Policies responding to International Instruments……41
3.2.1 Social Development Strategies ........................................................................ 44
3.2.2 Housing Strategies ........................................................................................... 45
3.2.3 Employment and the rights of workers............................................................ 46
3.3 Government and International Organisation Interventions...................................... 46
3.3.1 Poverty Alleviation Programmes ..................................................................... 46
3.3.2 Housing Programmes ....................................................................................... 47
3.3.3 Disabilities ....................................................................................................... 47
3.3.4 The Ilois Community ....................................................................................... 48
3.3.5 The Elderly....................................................................................................... 48
3.3.6 Drug Control ................................................................................................... 48
3.3.7 Managing Cultural Diversity .......................................................................... 50
3.4 Obstacles to Successful Formulation and Implementation of Strategies and
Policies............................................................................................................................48
3.4.1 Addressing the Problems of Poverty and Exclusion........................................ 51
3.4.2 Housing Problems ........................................................................................... 52
3.5 Analysis of Key Issues in Social Development ....................................................... 52
3.5.1 Poverty and Social Inequalities........................................................................ 52
3.5.2 Deprivation and Social Unrest ........................................................................ 55
3.5.3 Discrimination in the Employment Market .................................................... 57
3.5.4 Gender and Poverty.......................................................................................... 57
3.6 Key Areas of Possible Intervention ........................................................................ 58
4.0 CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS............................................... 60
4.1 International Instruments ......................................................................................... 60
4.2 Government Strategies and Policies ........................................................................ 60
4.2.1 Human Rights Provisions in the Constitution.................................................. 60
4.2.2 Reform of the Judiciary.................................................................................... 61
4.2.3 Local Government Reforms ............................................................................. 62
4.3 Government Interventions ........................................................................................ 62
4.3.1 Legal Amendments to consolidate Good Governance .................................... 62
4.3.2 Equal Opportunities Act .................................................................................. 63
4.3.3 Reform of Electoral Procedures ....................................................................... 63
4.3.4 Public Security Bill .......................................................................................... 63
4.4 Obstacles to Implementation of Strategies and Policies .......................................... 64
4.5 Critical Development Gaps...................................................................................... 65
4.5.1 Parliamentary Democracy................................................................................ 65
4.5.2 Local Government ............................................................................................ 66
4.5.3 The Press.......................................................................................................... 67
4.5.4 The Liberalisation of Broadcasting Services ................................................... 67
4.5.5 Public Administration...................................................................................... 67
4.5.6 Law and Order ................................................................................................. 68
4.5.7 The Judiciary.................................................................................................... 69
4.6 Key Issues to be Addressed ..................................................................................... 70
5.0 HEALTH, POPULATION AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH.... 71
5.1 Global Conferences................................................................................................. 71
5.1.1 Rights versus Needs Approach in Health ........................................................ 72
5.2 General Health Policies and Strategies .................................................................... 72
5.2.1 Reproductive Health Policies........................................................................... 73
5.3 Obstacles, underlying Causalities and Development Gaps in the Health sector ..... 73
5.3.1 Main Health Indicators................................................................................... 73
5.3.2 Recent Population Trends ............................................................................... 74
5.3.3 Acceptors and Users of Family Planning........................................................ 74
5.3.4 Teenage Pregnancy......................................................................................... 75
5.3.5 Complication at child birth ............................................................................ 75
5.3.6 Reproductive Tract Infections ......................................................................... 75
5.3.7 STDs and HIV/AIDS ..................................................................................... 76
5.3.8 Newly emerging Health issues......................................................................... 77
5.4 New challenges in Reproductive Health and Population......................................... 77
5.5 Key areas to be addressed in Health, Reproductive Health and Population............ 79
6.0 EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN .................................................. 80
6.1 International Instruments ........................................................................................ 80
6.2 Government Strategies and Policies responding to International Instruments ....... 80
6.3 Interventions of Government, UN and other partners ........................................... 81
6.3.1 Domestic Violence ........................................................................................... 81
6.3.2 Gender Mainstreaming..................................................................................... 81
6.3.3 Women Entrepreneurship and Poverty ............................................................ 81
6.3.4 The Girl Child .................................................................................................. 82
6.3.5 Women’s Health.............................................................................................. 82
6.3.6 Gender and the Law ......................................................................................... 82
6.3.7 Gender and the Media...................................................................................... 83
6.3.8 Women’s Political Participation ...................................................................... 83
6.4 Obstacles for Successful Formulation or Implementation of Strategies/Policies.... 83
6.5 Analysis of Gender Issues, Causalities and Development Gaps ............................. 84
6.5.1 Gender Issues in the Economy......................................................................... 84
6.5.2 Gender Inequality in Decision-Making ........................................................... 86
6.5.3 Women and Health Issues................................................................................ 87
6.5.4 Reproductive Health and Abortion.................................................................. 88
6.5.5 Gender-based Violence .................................................................................... 89
6.5.6 Feminisation of Poverty................................................................................... 89
6.5.7 Gender Disparities in Education...................................................................... 90
6.6 Key gender Development Issues.............................................................................. 90
7.0 CHILD RIGHTS DEVELOPMENT .............................................. 92
7.1 International Instruments ......................................................................................... 92
7.2 Government Strategies and Policies responding to International Instruments ........ 92
7.3 Interventions made by Government, UN and other Partners………………………
7.3.1 Early Childhood ............................................................................................... 93
7.3.2 Abuse ............................................................................................................... 94
7.3.3 Adolescence ..................................................................................................... 95
7.4 Obstacles for successful formulation or implementation of strategies and policies
7.4.1 Primary education and CPE............................................................................. 95
7.4.2 Abuse ............................................................................................................... 96
7.4.3 Disabilities ....................................................................................................... 96
7.4.4 Adolescent reproductive health........................................................................ 97
7.5 Analysis of Child Rights and Development Gaps....................................................94
7.5.1 Juvenile justice ................................................................................................. 98
7.5.2 Participation..................................................................................................... 98
7.5.3 Health............................................................................................................... 99
7.6 Key child rights Development Issues ...................................................................... 99
8.0 EDUCATION ............................................................................... 100
8.1 Global Conferences................................................................................................ 100
8.2 Government Policies and Strategies ...................................................................... 101
8.3 Government and International Organisation Intervention..................................... 101
8.4 Obstacles and Constraints to successful implementation of policies and strategies
...................................................................................................................................... 103
8.5 Underlying Causes and Development Gaps ......................................................... 103
8.5.1 The Primary Level ........................................................................................ 103
8.5.2 Access to secondary school........................................................................... 104
8.5.3 The Secondary Level ..................................................................................... 106
8.5.4 Technical and Vocational education............................................................. 106
8.5.5 Tertiary Level Education ............................................................................... 107
8.5.6 Adult education and life long learning.......................................................... 109
8.6 Key Education Issues for Future intervention ...................................................... 109
9.0 ENVIRONMENT......................................................................... 111
9.1 International Instruments ....................................................................................... 111
9.2 Government Strategies and policies ....................................................................... 111
9.3 Action Plans following Global Conferences.......................................................... 113
9.4 Constraints to implementation of strategies and policies adhering to international
instruments................................................................................................................... 114
9.5 In depth analysis underlying causalities and identification of key issues.............. 114
9.5.1 Waste Water Disposal.................................................................................... 115
9.5.2 Solid Waste Disposal ..................................................................................... 116
9.5.3 Transport and Energy..................................................................................... 116
9.5.4 The island of Rodrigues ................................................................................ 117
9.6 Areas of possible intervention in Environment ..................................................... 117
9.7 International Instruments for the Maritime and Fisheries Sector .......................... 118
9.8 Government and UN Intervention ......................................................................... 119
9.9 Areas of intervention in the Maritime and Fisheries sector................................... 119
10.0 FOOD SECURITY AND NUTRITION .................................... 121
10.1 International Instruments .................................................................................... 121
10.2 Government Strategies and Policies .................................................................... 121
10.2.1 Agricultural Policies .................................................................................... 121
10.2.2 Incentives to increase agricultural production............................................. 123
10.3 Food Production................................................................................................... 124
10.3.1 Food Production for Domestic Consumption and Imports ......................... 124
10.3.2 The Livestock Sector ................................................................................... 124
10.3.3 The Fisheries Sector..................................................................................... 125
10.4 Major Constraints and development gaps......................................................... 126
10.4.1 Agricultural self-sufficiency........................................................................ 126
10.4.2 Employment generation in agriculture......................................................... 127
10.4.3 Health and Safe Nutrition Issues .................................................................. 127
10.4.4 Occasional Food Shortage Problems ........................................................... 128
10.4.5 Women in agricultural activities .................................................................. 128
10.5 Key issues to be addressed in Food Security and Nutrition................................. 129
11.0 CONCLUSION: KEY ISSUES AND STRATEGIC FOCUS FOR
THE UN SYSTEM...................................................................................129
REFERENCES
ANNEX
1: Methodology
2: Contextual and Conference Indicators
3: Terms of Reference
TABLES
Table 1: Key Macroeconomic Indicators
Table 2: Selected Social Welfare Indicators
Table 3: Incidence of Poverty in Mauritius
Table 4: Incidence of Syphilis and Gonorrhoea 1995-1999.
Table 5: Fisheries Statistics 1992-1996
Table 6: Value of Fish and Fish Preparations
Executive Summary
The Common Country Assessment (CCA) is a country-based process for reviewing and
analysing the national development situation and for identifying key issues for advocacy,
policy dialogue. As part of the strive towards harmonisation of the programme cycles of
the individual organisations within the Joint Consultative Group on Policy (JCGP), the
United Nations System has decided to compile a Common Country Assessment, hereafter
referred to as CCA. The CCA serves as the stepping stone for the preparation of the
UNDAF (United Nations Development Assistance Framework).. In addition, the CCA
provides input to individual mid-review of the involved UN organisations.
The aim of the exercise is to provide a status of national development based on the
compilation and review of a common set of indicators reflecting the priorities and
mandates of the United Nations system, linked to internationally agreed goals set by the
various world conferences held in the 1990s. The process is participatory, dynamic and
continuous; it ensures learning from prior experience, brings in the UN system
organization’s combined knowledge, know-how and new ideas, advocates new
approaches, reaches new and revised consensus and updates the CCA document
accordingly. (From CCA/UNDAF Guidelines, UN April 1999)
1.
THE HUMAN RIGHTS BASED APPROACH
Within the development paradigm, there has been a gradual shift in policy
approach from a “basic needs” approach to a “human rights based” approach
which highlights issues related to children, women, the socially excluded, and
vulnerable groups in society. The human rights based approach is an integrated
approach which covers not only the economic, social and cultural rights of
individuals, but also their political and civil rights. UN agencies in Mauritius
have been emphasising this policy shift in their work with the government, NGOs,
and CBOs. However, there is still considerable work to be done to ensure that
this approach is widely understood and applied to social and economic
development issues in Mauritius.
There is also a need to push for further changes in the legal system which at this
time does not embody the broad range of civil and political rights found in the
Universal Declaration, the European Convention, and the Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights. The Government of Mauritius has voluntarily undertaken a legal
obligation to ensure that international human rights standards are applied in
national law and practice by becoming party to various treaties relevant to human
rights. Upholding the government to its obligations requires advocacy work and
close monitoring. Another key issue is the need for human rights education. This
is already being performed by some NGOs however, they need to be given more
support in terms of funding and training possibilities. Also, human rights
1
education should be integrated in the school curriculum at an early stage. Lastly,
the Human Rights Commission, which the government has agreed to set up
should be established as soon as possible.
2.
THE ECONOMY
The economy of Mauritius has shifted from being a mono-crop agricultural
economy to one where other major sectors, mainly the industrial, tourism and the
services provide a substantial contribution. The preferential export markets for
sugar and textiles, mainly through the sugar protocol and the Lome Convention
are under constant pressure. At the same time, globalisation of the economy
through the WTO will lead to the removal of trade barriers. Mauritius will have to
prepare itself to face fierce competition on the world market through increased
productivity and enhanced quality products. New areas of growth such as the
financial services, particularly in the offshore sector and the free-port are also
expected to become growing sectors of the economy in the years to come. The
transition from a low wage labour intensive economy to high-tech capital
production processes will not be a smooth one and will require massive and
speedy investment in the appropriate training and education sectors.
Even though Mauritius has witnessed a large -scale economic transformation,
socio-economic disparities have widened. Public expenditure on education and
health, as a percentage of government budget, has not changed significantly to
have an appreciable impact on citizen’s access to these services. The increase in
unemployment in recent years accompanied by inflation has contributed to a loss
of purchasing power and in particular with respect to women as indicated by
unemployment trends. In 1999, the unemployment rate was 11.3% for female
workers and 4.0% for male workers compared to 2.2% for females and 3.0% for
males in 1991.
The RDI (Relative Development Index) shows some wide regional disparities in
the levels of development. Geographical dispersal of industrial location and
tourism activities has spread out employment benefits widely but there are still
pockets of deprivation which have not benefited.
Key areas for development intervention:
i)
Improving the quality of decision making and governance
ii)
Diversifying the dynamic economic base
iii)
Upgrading the skills of labour through technical training institutions
iv)
Expanding the human capability
v)
Developing and maintaining infrastructure
vi)
Preserving environmental resources for international tourism
2
3.
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Mauritius has a long history of welfare services which dates back to the 1950s. It
is noteworthy that Mauritius has been able to retain most of its social services and
safety nets for vulnerable groups despite the constraints of the structural
adjustment programme of the 1980s. Although this has generally prevented
grinding poverty in Mauritius, there are deep-rooted reasons why some people
from deprived or marginalised groups do not make maximum use of services and
facilities in the same way that other groups have. Also, women suffer
disproportionately from poverty and exclusion in deprived areas, and this can lead
to severe mental and physical stress and even often to commercial sexual
activities. The ageing population will increase pressure on medical services as
well as on the social security system.
Deprivation in the form of poverty and social exclusion has been one of the most
disturbing side effects of rapid economic growth during the 80s and early 90s
with specific localities and groups in society suffering disproportionately. This
problem came to the forefront with social disturbances that broke out in several
deprived housing estates in February 1999 following the death of a popular singer
while in police detention. These social disturbances were unexpected and brought
up issues such as socio-economic inequalities and social exclusion among
inhabitants of the ‘cites ouvrieres’. This incident also brought up the need to
effectively manage cultural diversity while promoting equality of opportunity
among the different socio-economic and cultural groups. Since then there have
been other cases of social tension and unrest provoked by an array of different and
unconnected incidents, not necessarily in deprived areas, such as incidents
following road accidents in both rural and urban areas, the burning down of a
gaming house leading to the death of 7 persons, including an unborn child. It
should be noted that persons of all ethnic groups and walks of life have been
involved in these other incidents and it would be wrong to relate all these
seemingly unconnected events under the single problem of social exclusion in
deprived areas. The role and weight of socio-economic deprivation in the
February 1999 events continue to be a subject of debate and controversy. It is
important that these incidents be analysed and monitored very closely in order to
identify their deep underlying causes. These events have however triggered very
deep concern at all levels, government, the Catholic Church, the private sector
and civil society on issues of deprivation in certain regions which could easily
become breeding grounds for social unrest.
Equality of access to education and employment is one of the major potential root
causes of tension in a country where there has been up to now, a fairly strong
level of ethnic concentration in some sectors of the employment market. Public
and private sector jobs and certain advanced technology opportunities require a
high level of qualifications and training, and therefore exclude large numbers and
groups of people. There are also problems of unemployment surfacing once again
and issues of workers rights which need to be resolved.
3
The quality of housing has greatly improved however, the demand for housing is
growing at a fast rate. There have been until the 1980s, social housing schemes to
cater for the needs of low income groups either by offering very soft loans for the
construction of houses to people who had land or for the construction of low cost
housing estates on minimal rental basis. The structural adjustment period of the
1980s witnessed a shift away from this policy to cost recovery and affordability
principles. The problem of squatters has become more acute in the last few years
and reflects the growing difficulties of low- income households. The issue of
ethnic segregation in some low cost hous ing estates is a subject of concern,
especially as there has been a constant degradation of physical infrastructure in
those estates.
Drug abuse and alcoholism are serious problems in Mauritius which can be seen
as linked to issues such as poverty, social exclusion and lack of adaptation to the
social environment. However, Mauritius has not ratified the 1998 UN
Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances,
one of the 3 main UN Conventions on Drug Control. Although different
ministries such as Health, Education and Youth and Sports have programmes for
the education of the population on alcohol and drug abuse, it is felt that not
enough work is being done at a grassroots level. A closer collaboration between
NGOs and the government that leads to a global evaluation of the problem and to
a comprehensive plan of action is called for. In April 1999, the UNDCP/ROEA
representative held talks with Government of Mauritius officials. After a UNDCP
mission in April 1999, Mauritius was selected as one of the 9 countries to
establish thematic groups on drug control to facilitate the process of coordination, and to integrate drug control in other inter-agency co-ordination
groups at the field level on a pilot basis.
Key areas for development intervention:
i)
The need to pursue a programme of social housing for low- income groups
and to improve the physical infrastructure of certain existing housing
estates.
ii)
A shelter programme for the poorest of the poor, the abandoned, and the
homeless should be devised.
iii)
There should be a comprehensive evaluation of existing poverty
alleviation programmes.
iv)
Need for more in-depth studies of deprived areas using both quantitative
and qualitative techniques.
v)
A multi- pronged approach must be adopted to deal with the problems of
deprived regions, because of the multi- faceted dimension of the problem.
vi)
Short entrepreneurship training programmes and micro-credit schemes for
the young and for women in deprived areas to help the unemployed to
develop new and more sustainable livelihood strategies.
vii)
Improve co-ordination and material and human resource capacity of NGO
sector dealing with various aspects of social development.
4
viii)
ix)
x)
xi)
xii)
xiii)
xiv)
xv)
4.
More community development schemes and programmes involving young
people, especially school dropouts in deprived areas, should be introduced.
There should be more organised leisure activities, such as sports, artistic
and cultural development schemes in deprived areas.
Carry out a study to determine the seriousness of the drug abuse problem
in Mauritius and to make recommendations for future action
Set up an Inter-Ministerial Committee on drug control; and elaborate a
Master Plan for Drug Control.
Assist and strengthen both governmental institutions and NGOs to deal
with prevention of drug abuse, treatment and rehabilitation of drug
abusers; and provide NGOs with financial assistance to carry out specific
drug control activities
For the Government of Mauritius to ratify the 1988 Convention Against
Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances
For the Judiciary, Police, Customs, and Immigration services to receive
specific training to increase their effectiveness in dealing with drug control
More support for disabled children and their families. Special schools,
which are at present mostly located in urban areas, should be decentralised
and thought should be given to the opening of special units in regular
schools.
CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS
Mauritius has a fairly good track record concerning human rights issues. The
Constitution of 1968 provides for the setting up of a politically democratic society
and a number of basic safeguards for human rights. However, in the day to day
administration of the country some of these provisions are not proving to be
sufficiently effective with respect to the expectations of the electorate as the social
environment has changed drastically since 1968. One such example is the
electoral system based on the “first past the post” system which is leading to some
gross distortions of the democratic process with large percentages of the
electorate being without representatives in Parliament. Recommendations have
been made for the reform of the Judiciary and are being gradually implemented. A
Human Rights Commission will soon be set up as well as new legislation to
combat corruption and money laundering.
The issue of law and order has become a subject of concern with the rise in
criminality and the high levels of frustration in certain deprived regions of the
island. The recent introduction of the Public Security Act (PSA) forms part of
government’s effort to consolidate law and order. This Act gives considerable
powers to the Commissioner of Police in matters of public security, and is
considered by some as containing serious infringements to basic human rights.
It should be noted that the Act has not yet been proclaimed due to numerous
appeals to Government to reconsider some of its provisions.
5
The police have been the object of severe criticism following a certain number of
deaths of persons while in custody in police cells. Drug trafficking and abuse are
other areas which require urgent attention.
Key areas for development intervention:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
vii)
viii)
ix)
x)
xi)
5.
The problem of non-implementation of recommendations from reports
Assistance in re-examining the implications of the Public Security Act
before its promulgation
Setting up of the National Human Rights Commission
Support for possible reforms of the electoral system to consolidate
democracy
Support to decentralisation of local government
Assistance in the formulation and operation of an Equal Opportunities Act
Reform and modernisation of public administration and prison services
Strengthening the Police Complaints Bureau
Increasing training and support services for the police to operate more
effectively
Setting up of a Press Council
Liberalisation of broadcasting services
HEALTH, POPULATION AND REPRODUCTIVE H EALTH
Mauritius has had a free health service within the broad framework of the welfare
state which was introduced in the 1950s. However, the long-term sustainability of
the “welfare state model” is becoming problematic as pressure increased on the
various health services. In an effort to reduce the pressure on general hospitals,
government adopted a policy of decentralisation of health services through the
setting up of primary health care centres all over the country. Unfortunately there
is a systematic by-passing of these primary health care centres. The requirements
of the health sector have changed dramatically over the last few decades. There
has been a shift away from communicable diseases to non-communicable ones,
such as diabetes, cardio-vascular problems, and hypertension. Health indicators
show definite improvements in the health status of the population except for
infant mortality rates and low birth weight rates. It is generally felt that
industrialisation, longer working hours, less healthy food habits, sedentary
occupations, and lack of exercise may be having negative effects on the health of
particularly women. The entry of women and younger people into the labour
market as well as fierce competition in schools has left very little time for health
education programmes.
There is no explicit document on national population policy, however, since the
1960s, government has been strongly committed to family planning. The oral pill
has remained for a long time the most commonly used method of contraceptive.
However a new trend has been detected indicating a shift away from reliable
6
forms of contraceptives to less reliable ones such as the withdrawal and rhythm
methods. The consistently growing abortion rate is a matter of serious concern
and needs to be addressed urgently even if it is a sensitive issue. Though the
problem touches mostly married women, anecdotal evidences reveal that
most teenage unwanted pregnancies end in clandestine illegal abortions,
suggesting that the problem is linked not only to a heavy reliance on unsafe
Family Planning Methods, but also to a lack of appropriate Sexual and
Reproductive Health information and services, especially to the adolescents
and the unmarried. Access to clinic–based reproductive health services is
denied to the adolescents and the unmarried as a result socio-cultural taboo.
There is also evidence of an increase in the incidence of breast, cervix and
prostrate cancer. Although the number of detected HIV/AIDS cases has not
reached alarming proportions, there should be no room for complacency.
Key areas for development intervention:
i)
Need to strengthen community based primary health services and to
encourage a participatory approach.
ii)
Greater emphasis on continuous training programmes for medical and
paramedical staff
iii)
Review and re-engineering of organisational structure of health services at
the central level
iv)
Promote use of more reliable Family Planning Methods
v)
Assistance in making more effective sex education programmes for
adolescents in schools.
vi)
The problem of teenage pregnancy must be addressed.
vii)
Urgent attention to the issue of sexual exploitation of youth.
viii) Assistance to couples facing problems of infertility.
ix)
More health education programmes geared towards working women
through greater use of audio- visual media techniques.
x)
Studies on the causes of the high incidence of low birth weight babies,
stagnating stillbirth and infant mortality rates; as we ll as the health and
general wellbeing of the mother, especially her nutritional status.
xi)
The move to less reliable birth control methods must be studied.
xii)
Women must be sensitised about the need to start ante- natal care early in
their pregnancy (taking into consideration their time constraints).
xiii) The benefits and meaning of exclusive breast feeding for the first 4-6
months, as well as weaning practices should be explained.
xiv) A system of screening must be established to detect breast and cervical
cancer.
xv)
The high incidence of abortion must be urgently addressed.
xvi) An intensive programme of information and education on sexually
transmitted diseases and HIV/AIDS should be devised.
xvii) Support sensitisation programmes on non-communicable diseases
7
6.
EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN
The position of women in Mauritian society has changed significantly over the
last few decades with progress being made in some areas towards gender equality.
The most important factor which has changed the position of women over the past
few decades has been the entry of large numbers of women into the labour force
as a result of the setting up of the Export Processing Zones. The Constitution has
also been amended, and other important pieces of legislation and an institutional
framework to facilitate change have been introduced. Recognition of issues such
as gender-based violence and sexual harassment has also increased.
However women are still to be found largely in the low- level unskilled
occupational groups and very few are in decision-making or leadership positions.
Gender relations within the household have not adjusted to the needs of working
mothers resulting in triple workloads and burdens for women. Men seem to have
become marginalised from home-based activities and need to be re-engaged in
family life. Women entrepreneurs face lack of access to credit and information
networks, as well as resistance to their involvement in male-dominated business
networks. Although Mauritius has made significant advances in the health sector,
there is still a relatively high maternal mortality rate. Women’s triple workload
often results in fatigue, strain, and stress. Women are also more vulnerable to the
effects of poverty and social exclusion, especially in Rodrigues, where there is a
higher percentage of female-headed households. Although there are no blatant
gender inequalities at the primary and secondary levels of the education system,
there are still certain disciplines which are considered to be male preserves and in
which girls are largely or totally absent.
Key areas for development intervention:
i)
Need for capacity-building in public and private sectors for gender
awareness, gender sensitivity and gender mainstreaming at all levels.
ii)
Need to assess poverty alleviation programmes for gender sensitivity and
impact on poor women.
iii)
Promoting women in decision-making functions/roles
iv)
Reconciling women’s unpaid and paid work and the need for policy
responses to the burdens/strains associated with working women.
v)
Need to create more opportunities for women in the employment market
in particular by orienting girls towards science and technical subjects as
well as vocational training.
vi)
Breaking down the “glass ceiling” in the work place.
vii)
Drawing men into activities and programmes relating to family welfare
and re-engaging them in households.
viii) Providing capacity building support to women’s NGOs, CBOs and
associations and encouraging more co-ordination between this sector and
the government.
ix)
Supporting women in their economic activities through equitable access to
credit etc.
8
x)
xi)
xii)
7.
Need for new and amended legislation regarding labour, employment etc.
and more changes to Napoleon Code to reflect gender equality.
Sensitisation of the general public to gender issues through public
relations/communications strategies by ministries, NGOs, and
international organisations (advocacy).
Focusing on adolescent girls and boys.
CHILD R IGHTS DEVELOPMENT
The government has committed itself to protecting the rights of the child, namely
through accession to the Convention of the Rights of the Child (CRC) in July
1990. There have been several amendments to existing law and some new pieces
of legislation to reflect new policy approaches adopted towards children.
The trend towards nuclearisation and the increasing isolation of the family from
the community is creating serious childcare problems. The impact of the increase
of mono-parental families and ensuing child care problems may be linked to high
drop out rates in schools. The problem of child abuse was addressed for the first
time in 1990 with the opening of a regional child abuse unit at a hospital to
diagnose and treat children who have been victims of abuse. There are now
regional units in 5 different localities. However, there is a lack of trained
personnel in the area of counselling, rehabilitation, and child psychology. Of
concern is the rising rate in the incidence of low birth weight babies which may
be due to poverty, lack of access to information, inappropriate nutrition, unhealthy
lifestyles and physical fatigue in the workplace.
Adolescence is becoming increasingly a period of opportunity and risk with
changes in lifestyles, greater freedom, and greater access to all sorts of
information. One fundamental problem of the school system is the competition
that exists at the end of the primary cycle when there is a scramble for places in
good secondary schools. There are important inequalities between regions with
the lowest CPE results occurring in the most socio-economically deprived
regions. There have also been recommendations to include or strengthen sex
education in the school curricula. However, many parents worry that this will
encourage sexual activity amongst youngsters in school.
Key areas for development intervention:
i)
ii)
iii)
9
To strengthen provisions for early childhood care and development
To further examine the impact on the child of competition at the primary
education level and especially at the CPE
To study and address the issue of educational inequalities at the primary
level especially in deprived regions
iv)
v)
vi)
vii)
viii)
8.
To better understand problems of adolescents in the country and to look
into ways of developing programmes of activities for their development.
To promote research in the field of child abuse and strengthen services for
the care of abused children
To formulate and appropriate Juvenile Justice policy
Assessment of the extent and nature of disabilities among children and
support to the provision of appropriate services in this field.
The address issues of health among children and more particularly the
problem of infant mortality and low birth weight babies
EDUCATION
Education is free from the primary to the tertiary level and much progress has
been made over the years to increase access to all levels of education for both
girls and boys. Despite this progress, large disparities in performance rates in
certain regions and among certain groups of the population reflect deeply rooted
and multi-faceted inequalities in the system. The lowest pass rates at the CPE
level are found in the most socially and economically deprived regions of the
country. Competition is enormous to reach the good or “star” secondary schools.
Enrolment rates drop from 100% in the primary sector to just above 50% in the
secondary level as a result of the high dropout and failure rate at the end of the
primary level. The language issue is another source of ethnic tension with
proposals to include Oriental languages as subjects at the CPE level for ranking
purposes.
At the secondary level, many feel that the educational system may be outdated
and not addressing the newly emerging needs of the country. A disinterest in
science subjects has been noted in the case of both girls and boys but this is more
marked among girls. There are also problems of inadequate facilities for scie nce
subjects in some rural regions. For a long time, vocational and technical
education has remained at the margin of mainstream and academic education.
However, with the recent industrialisation, a much broader range of technical
occupations have now emerged in the labour market. Again, there is a problem of
gender disparity in enrolment rates in technical and pre-vocation schools. In 1999,
the tertiary enrolment rate was 12%, calculated as the percentage of the
population aged 19-24 years. This percentage includes distance education students
as well as those studying in overseas institutions. Students attending tertiary
institutions in Mauritius (University, MIE, MGI, MCA) constituted half of that
figure, i.e 6%. There is increasing pressure of demand for places and clearly an
inability of the tertiary sector to meet demand locally. The University is presently
launching a programme of open/flexible learning courses leading to certificates
and diplomas to be run after office hours. A new University, the University of
Technology is being set up. There are also similar initiatives in the private sector.
10
Key areas for development intervention:
i)
Causes of low performance and lack of motivation must be studied more
closely. The role and behaviour of potent ial employers in hiring
decisions, and specialised teacher training and parental sensitisation
programmes also demand closer attention.
ii)
At the secondary and tertiary levels, there is a need to examine career
guidance as well as the causes of gender disparity in student enrolment in
science and technical subjects.
iii)
There is a need to study the human resource requirement of the country in
the years to come in order to reorient tertiary level education more
effectively.
iv)
Adult education and life- long learning must be further strengthened and
new communication techniques explored.
11
9.
ENVIRONMENT
Small island developing states are limited in size and have vulnerable economies.
Therefore, land resources, energy resources and coastal zones, marine and tourist
resources are vital for their development and need to be protected from
degradation and pollution. A great deal of progress has been achieved in setting
up the necessary legislative and institutional framework for environmental
protection and for the implementation of a number of projects which had been
developed under the first National Environmental Action Plan. The second plan
has now been completed. Six areas have been identified where the risks to the
environment due to economic development, are the highest and these are land
resources, water resources, air pollution, bio-diversity, coastal areas, solid wastes
and the special case of Rodrigues. National environmental standards have been
promulgated for drinking water, noise, effluents for the sugar industry, treated
wastewater for use in irrigation. Others are about to be promulgated, namely solid
wastes, hazardous wastes and vehicle emissions among others.
Key areas for development intervention:
i)
Pollution of coastal areas due to discharge of contaminated effluents and
contaminated stream and river water coming from agricultural, industrial,
domestic and tourist activities.
ii)
Pollution of the aquifers and rivers by agrochemicals and industrial
effluents.
iii)
Solid waste disposal. The increasing use of plastics is a real threat.
iv)
Sewerage.
v)
Atmospheric pollution caused by an increasing fleet of vehicles and
industries.
vi)
Increasing pressure for the release of agricultural land for residential or
commercial use.
vii)
Soil erosion in Rodrigues.
viii) Further provision of safe drinking water in Rodrigues.
The key areas of intervention in the Maritime and fisheries sector relate to
maritime safety, the strengthening of maritime administration, the introduction of
new maritime legislation, training in the sector, research into and monitoring of
marine pollution.
10.
FOOD S ECURITY
Given the constraints of size, the eating habits of the population, the climate and
the soil type in different parts of the island, it would be impossible for the country
to become self sufficient with regard to all its food requirements. The island’s
economy has known a long history of dependence on sugar which has remained
the central activity until the last couple of decades. There is therefore great
reliance on imported foods but on balance, the value of agricultural exports,
12
sugar, tea and fish by far exceeds the value of our food imports. There is no real
shortage of food in the country except possibly for short periods after a severe
cyclone or during a drought. The current drought is the worst that the country has
known for the last century or so. The limited area for agriculture leads to a very
intensive form of cultivation with heavy inputs in terms of fertilisers, pesticides
and herbicides.
Although the female participation rate in the formal sector of agriculture has been
decreasing, a large number of women, especially in Rodrigues are still engaged in
important agricultural production activities. Extension services and other related
support systems need to become more gender sensitive in order to integrate
gender planning into the agricultural and fishing sectors.
Key areas for development intervention:
i)
Monitoring water management and deforestation, especially in the context
of global warming.
ii)
Clear conservation policies for lagoons and high seas due to their
importance for the fisheries sector.
iii)
Assessment of the present contribution of biotechnology to agriculture.
iv)
Development of clear guidelines for evaluating transgenic crops.
v)
Rethinking the livestock sector to increase herd size, encourage new
professional farmers, and improve the quality of products.
vi)
New improved technologies for agricultural production and expertise in
domestic and export marketing.
vii)
Develop agricultural sector through greater regional co-operation.
viii) Further research into crop protection (pest and disease control).
ix)
Conservation of agricultural produce.
x)
Capacity-building in agricultural training, education, and extension, taking
into account the special constraints and needs of women farmers and small
peasants.
13
COMMON COUNTRY ASSESSMENT
INTRODUCTION: SETTING A GLOBAL AGENDA FOR CHANGE
Within the last decade, the international community has organised 12 major conferences
with a view to achieving global consensus for a new development agenda for the 1990s
and beyond. Governments participating in these conferences have committed themselves
to address the major problems facing the world today. There has been considerable
agreement on shared values and goals, and on strategies to achieve them. The areas
covered have been child welfare, education, environmental protection, human rights, the
advancement of women, reproductive health, the human habitat, food security and
sustainable development. The conferences gave an opportunity to countries to examine
their own situation and to take decisions on appropriate policies followed by action plans
for the implementation of agreed upon policies.
The 1990s witnessed the emergence of new approaches to development. The action plans
of the various World Conferences 1 contain a variety of guidelines and principles
reflecting new thinking about development. The major principles that have emerged are
the following:
•
Development should be human centred. A multi-dimensional approach to
development must be adopted because of the multifaceted aspects of the individual’s
well being. Central goals of development include the eradication of poverty, the
fulfilment of basic needs and the protection of all human rights and fundamental
freedoms, not least the right to development.
•
Investments in health, education and training are critical to the development of human
resources. It is necessary to promote increased and equal economic opportunities, to
avoid exclusion and overcome socially divisive disparities while respecting diversity.
•
The improvement of the status of women, including their empowerment, is central to
all efforts to achieve sustainable development in its economic, social and
environmental dimensions.
•
Diversion of resources away from social priorities should be avoided, and where it
has occurred, be corrected. The formulation of structural adjustment policies and
programmes should take these considerations into account.
•
An acceleration of the rate of economic growth is essential for expanding the resource
base for development and hence for economic, technical and social transformation.
Economic growth generates the required financial, physical, human and technological
resources and creates a basis for sustained global economic growth.
(The World Conferences: Development Priorities of the 21st Century [UN Briefing
Papers] 1997)
14
The recommendations emanating from global conferences have provided for effective
linkages between the macro-economic and operational activities of the UN system and
greater coherence and integration between the macro-economic and social policy
framework and other cross-cutting policy dimensions such as gender, human rights and
environment.
15
1.0 THE HUMAN RIGHTS BASED APPROACH
1.1 EVOLUTION IN POLICY APPROACHES
In the context of the development paradigm there has been an important shift in policy
approach from what is known as the ‘basic needs’ approach to the ‘rights’ approach and
this shift applies to issues related to children, women, the socially excluded, and
vulnerable groups generally. The basic needs approach focuses on the short-term
practical needs oriented towards welfare and operates in a rather ‘compartmentalised’
framework. In contrast, the rights approach, which carries a sense of entitlement, is a
more integrated and cross-sectoral approach that overarches human rights,
democratisation, the advancement of women and environmental protection and quality of
life.
It is important to note that the new approach in no way overwrites the former one but
merely marks an evolution by going beyond it. From welfare concerns, there has been a
move towards sustainability, equity and more recently empowerment. The novel guiding
principles are universality and interdependence. This new approach has triggered the
need to develop new policy instruments and integrated action plans. An integrative and
participatory approach has also become a condition sine qua non for successful
implementation of programmes within this new paradigm.
As a result of these new policy approaches, there has been considerable rethinking of the
role of the United Nations in international affairs. More emphasis is being placed on
inter-agency collaboration and co-ordination which would not be limited to the exchange
of information but would extend to a ‘goal-oriented collaboration’ for maximising the
comparative advantages of the respective agencies and organisations of the UN system.
The inter-agency collaboration becomes even more important in the context of the new
human-centred perspective which requires a multidisciplinary and cross -sectoral
approach to development.
The growing emphasis on the rights approach demands a move away from the
‘compartmentalised’ framework, where specific problems were addressed separately by
separate organisations leading to unconnected interventions with different categories of
people, to an integrated, interrelated and coherent framework. Moreover, the growing
emphasis on the rights approach carries a sense of entitlement at the same time as it takes
into account the multi-faceted dimension of a person’s well-being. This more integrated
approach does not only cover the economic, social and cultural rights of individuals but
also their political and civil rights.
1.2 INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS INSTRUMENTS
The Vienna World Conference on Human Rights held in 1993 provided the international
community with a new framework for planning, dialogue and co-operation that will
enable a holistic approach to promoting human rights and will involve actors at all levels,
16
international, national and local. The Vienna declaration marked some major advances
towards more wide-ranging consensus with far-reaching implications for all countries,
through the following:
1. The protection and promotion of human rights, as the birthright of all human beings,
to be the first responsibility of the State.
2. The provision and protection of all human rights to be a legitimate concern of the
international community.
3. The legitimacy of the right to development reaffirmed as an integral part of
fundamental human rights.
4. The specific rights of particularly vulnerable groups, including women, indigenous
people, refugees, children, disabled people, detainees and victims of enforced
disappearance and migrant workers and their families were recognised and specific
measures were recommended to better protect them.
5. The establishment of a special rapporteur on violence against women.
6. The recognition that extreme poverty and social exclusion are a “violation of human
dignity” and that states must make all efforts to combat extreme poverty.
7. The establishment of a High Commissioner for Human Rights for the promotion and
protection of all human rights, promoting and protecting the effective enjoyment by
all of all civil, cultural, economic, political and social rights, including the right to
development.
1.2.1 The Constitution of Mauritius
The Independence Constitution of 1968 is the Supreme Law of Mauritius, meaning that
any law that is passed by Parliament but is inconsistent with any clause of the
Constitution is null and void. It provides a framework for the laws and the legal
protection of human rights.
Chapter II of the Constitution guarantees a variety of Fundamental Rights and Freedom
of the Individual drawn from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and in some
cases replicates the wording of the European Convention on Human Rights and
Fundamental Freedoms. The specific rights guaranteed in this Chapter include the
following:
‘the right to life, the right to personal liberty, protection from slavery and
forced labour, protection from inhuman treatment, protection from deprivation
of property, protection for privacy of home and other property, freedom of
conscience, freedom of expression, freedom of assembly and association,
freedom to establish schools, freedom of movement (with certain restrictions
as in any other democratic country), protection from discrimination on the
grounds of race, caste and place of origin, political opinions, colour or
creed.’
However, the Constitution does not embody the broad range of civil and political rights
found in the Universal Declaration, the European Convention, or the Covenant on Civil
17
and Political Rights. The following rights are absent from the basic rights or freedoms
guaranteed by the Constitution of Mauritius:
•
•
•
•
•
Right to recognition
Right to effective remedy
Right to asylum
Right to nationality
Right to marry and form a family
There are derogations from the basic freedoms for prescribed public interest purposes
unless the legal restriction in question is shown “not to be reasonably justifiable in a
democratic society”. The legal restriction is usually allowed in the interests of defence,
public safety, public order, public morality, public health, and for the purpose of
protecting the rights or freedoms of other persons. The most obvious derogation is the
case of a person who loses his/her right to personal liberty if he/she is sent to prison by a
court of law for having committed a criminal offence. There are provisions in the
Constitution for further derogations during a period of public emergency.
1.2.2 International Treaty Obligations
Mauritius is a party to the following treaties relevant to the field of human rights and
humanitarian law:
1. Slavery Convention of 1926
2. Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade and
Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery
3. Convention on the Political Rights of Women
4. Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War of August 12, 1949
5. Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and
Shipwrecked members of the Armed Forces at Sea of August, 1949
6. Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the conditions of the Wounded and Sick
in Armed Forces in the Field of August 12, 1949
7. Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War of
August 12, 1949
8. Forced Labour Convention (ILO No. 105)
9. International Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination.
10. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
11. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
12. Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining Convention (ILO No. 98)
13. Convention on the Nationality of Married Women
14. Convention Against Discrimination in Education
15. Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
16. Convention on the Rights of the Child
17. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women
18. Convention against Torture and Other Cruel Inhuman or Degrading Treatment of
Punishment
18
19. African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights
By accepting these treaties, Mauritius has voluntarily undertaken a legal obligation to
take steps to ensure that international human rights standards are applied in national law
and in practice.
No specific legislation governing the procedure for the certification of treaties exists. In
practice treaty- making seems to be within the sphere of the exercise of executive power.
There is no direct provision in the Constitution which gives precedence to general
International Law or International Human Rights Law.
It is noteworthy that the only instruments from the above list to be incorporated in the
domestic law of Mauritius are the Geneva Conventions by virtue of the Geneva
Conventions Act of 1970. This Act made it an offence for any person to commit a grave
breach of any of the Geneva Conventions, listed above as 4, 5, 6 and 7.
1.2.3 Government Response to Global Conferences
One of the recommendations of the World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna in
1993 was the setting up the office of a High Commissioner as Head of the Centre for
Human Rights. This was done later in the year. In 1994, the General Assembly of the
UN proclaimed the UN Decade for Human Rights Education, 1995 - 2004.
At the request of the Government of Mauritius, the High Commissioner/Centre for
Human Rights (HC/CHR) conducted a Needs Assessment Mission2 to Mauritius in
November - December 1996. The objective of the mission was to produce an evaluation
of the country’s needs in the field of human rights with a view to formulating a Technical
Co-operation Project between the HC/CHR and the Government of Mauritius. It is
noteworthy that the Ministry of Justice is now known as the Ministry of Justice, Human
Rights and Corporate Affairs, thus creating a portfolio of Human Rights.
The UN mission made a number of recommendations. The main recommendations were:
1. A Review of the Judiciary system with a view to rationalising and removing
anomalies in the interest of the rapid and efficient administration of justice. A
report on the reform of the Judiciary has recently been submitted to Government.
On the whole there seems to be consensus on the main propositions that have
been made.
2. The need for the establishment of redress mechanisms, other than the Supreme
Court, such as strengthening the role of Ombudsman or establishing an
independent National Human Rights Commission.
3. From the perspective of human rights, the mission found it of utmost importance
that the case for or against retention of Privy Council appeals be addressed and
debated.
4. It would be most desirable to have one National Human Rights Commission
possibly with several advisory Bodies or Committees devoted to women’s rights,
19
children’s rights, non-discrimination and equal opportunity and other particularly
important issues. It should be pointed out that the government has already
declared its intention to set up a Human Rights Commission in Mauritius.
5. The establishment of a Police Complaints Bureau to address the use of excessive
force by the police in carrying out their mandate.
6. The issue of prisoner’s rights and human rights in the prison administration
system need to be carefully examined with a view to effecting improvement in the
existing prison service.
7. The “establishment of a National Committee for Human Rights Education by the
50th Anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1998).
The HC/CHR had already put its Special Advisor on National Institutions, Regional
Arrangements and Preventive Strategies to the High Commissioner for Human Rights at
the disposal of the Government of Mauritius for advice and assistance regarding the
establishment of a National Human Rights Commission.
The Protection of Human Rights Act was passed in late 1998. It makes provision for the
setting up of a National Human Rights Commission which will be presided over by a
person who has been a judge. The object of this legislation is to provide “for the better
protection of human rights, for the better investigation of complaints against members of
the police force and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereof.”
There have been important developments in the context of the Judiciary. The
Commission set up to look into the reforms of the Judiciary, presided over by Lord
Mackay3 has now submitted its report with a number of recommendations which are
being implemented either through legislation or administration procedures.
1.2.4 Amendments to the 1968 Constitution
There have been several amendments to the Constitution but only those relevant to
human rights issues will be considered here. The fir st amendment to the 1968
Constitution extended the life of Parliament elected in August 1967. It must be pointed
out that there are provisions in the Constitution for amendments to the Constitution
whereby certain clauses can be amended with a two-thirds majority and others, of a more
fundamental nature, need a three-quarters majority. In fact with a three-quarters
majority, any clause of the constitution can be amended except for Section 57(2) as
explained later.
In 1971, during a period of emergency, section 57(2) of the Constitution was amended to
allow for an extension of the life of Parliament beyond the prescribed 5 years. In 1973 an
amendment was brought to the Constitution to abolish by-elections altogether and
henceforth vacancies in the legislature were to be filled by the best losers in the preceding
General Elections, belonging to the same community and party as the outgoing member.
In 1975, Section 42 of the Constitution was amended to bring the age of voting from 21
to 18.
20
In 1982, the Constitution was amended to restore by-elections and make mandatory the
holding of elections every five years. This latter provision could only be changed if the
proposed Bill has before its introduction in the Assembly been submitted, by referendum,
to the electorate of Mauritius and has been approved by the votes of not less than threequarters of the electorate, and is supported at the final voting in the Assembly by the
votes of all the members of the Assembly. The Bill in question relates to any amendment
to be brought to the original Section 57(2).
In 1986, Section 8 of the Constitution was amended to make it explicit that the court is
authorised to confiscate the ill- gotten wealth of convicted drug traffickers.
Although the government had ratified the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of
Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) in 1984, it was only in 1995 that Section
16(3), that relates to protection from discrimination, was amended to include the word
sex. However, Section 16(4), which was not amended, provides that discrimination is
still possible should Personal Laws be voted.
According to Section 20 and 23 of the 1968 Constitution, a person born outside Mauritius
whose father was a citizen of Mauritius was entitled to Mauritian citizenship but a mother
could not transmit the same citizenship rights to her child. This discrimination against
women has now been removed with an amendment to Section 20 and 23 in 1995 which
stipulates that a person born outside Mauritius whose father or mothe r was a citizen of
Mauritius is entitled to Mauritian citizenship.
The other piece of legislation which contained discriminatory provisions against women
was the one related to the right of the Mauritian woman’s foreign husband to be
registered as a citizen of Mauritius while it was possible for the foreign wife of a
Mauritian to do so. The amendments to Section 21 and 24 of the Constitution has
removed the discriminatory aspect of this law by extending this right to both men and
women.
At the same time an amendment was brought to existing provisions of the Citizenship Act
which stipulated that a Mauritian child who also happened to be a national or citizen of
another country had to renounce one of the two nationalities when reaching the age of 21.
The Mauritian child is no longer required to do so and can retain both nationalities.
1.2.5 Other Changes in Legislation Related to Human Rights Issues
1.
In 1994, the Child Protection Act was enacted after accession to the Convention on
the Rights of the Child and in pursuance of its implementation to make better
provision for the protection of children against ill- treatment, neglect, abandonment
destitution and any other form of exposure to harm.
2.
In 1995 capital punishment was removed from the law.
21
3.
In 1997, the Protection from Domestic Violence Act was passed to protect the
rights of the spouse and that of the children of the spouse from violence including
intimidation, harassment, maltreatment, brutality or cruelty; or any threat of such
treatment.
4.
In August 1998, the Protection of the Child (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act was
passed which brought amendments to a number of existing legislations including
the Child Protection Act of 1994. At the same time amendments were brought to the
Criminal Code Act to make sexual harassment a criminal offence and to give
further protection to minors and to the physically and mentally handicapped person
on whom a sexual act is committed.
5.
In December 1998, the Protection of Human Rights Act was passed and proclaimed
in January 1999.
1.2.6 Rights of Workers
The Industrial Relations Act of 1973 which regulates trade union activities has certain
clauses which are considered to be repressive, in particular those relating to the right of
workers to strike. In fact the conditions laid down are such that it is virtually impossible
to organise a legal strike. The Minister for Industrial Relations has announced that the
ILO is working on a draft bill to replace the IRA. A Draft Bill on the Protection of
Employment, prepared with the help of ILO, has just been circulated and will eventually
replace the Labour Act. The Minister has indicated that an Institute of Industrial
Relations will be set up at the beginning of 2000 where training courses in industrial
relations will be given.
1.3 K EY ISSUES FOR FUTURE INTERVENTION
All human rights issues relating to specific sectors will be taken up in detail in the later
sections of the report.
1.
•
•
•
•
•
•
22
Human Rights education could be considered as one of the key elements for the
successful implementation of strategies and policies in this field. A number of
NGOs, listed below, are at present engaged in this exercise. They perform
promotional functions, conducting human rights campaigns and providing
assistance to victims of domestic violence and other human rights violations. Some
of these organisations have investigated cases of alleged human rights violations
and have published their findings. It is important that they be given more support in
terms of funding and training possibilities. The main organisations are:
Amnesty International (Mauritius Section)
Indian Ocean Institute for Human Rights
SOS Femmes Battues
Women’s Liberation Movement (MLF)
Women’s Legal Action Watch
The Comite des Droits Democratique (CDD)
There are two associations for the safeguard of the rights of the consumers:
•
•
Association des Consommateurs de l’Ile Maurice (ACIM)
Institute for Consumer Protection (ICP)
It should also be noted that there are many other organisations which engage in
human rights activities even if their mission is not directly linked to the defence of
human rights.
2.
Human Rights education should be integrated in the school curriculum so that
children become aware of the concept right from early childhood.
3.
The Human Rights Commission, which the government has agreed to set up, should
be set up as soon as possible.
23
2.0 THE ECONOMY
2.1 G ENERAL OVERVIEW
Mauritius is a small island developing state (SIDS) of about 1.2 million inhabitants, with
an area of 1853 square kilometres, located in the Indian Ocean east of Madagascar.
Although, it is part of the African Continent, its location and cultural diversity in fact
contribute to its distinct identification from the rest of Africa. It started, after attaining
Independence in 1968, with almost all the features of an underdeveloped economy: high
population growth rate, high unemployment rate, low savings and investment rate, low
volume of exports, weak human and physical infrastructure and low level of economic
development. Sugar cultiva tion and sugar exports were the backbone of the economy
during 60s and 70s, accounting for over 25% of GDP. In the early phases of
industrialisation, import substitution industries were given preference over export
industries.
During 1972-75, sugar boom surpluses were partly diverted to domestic industries,
particularly hotel industry. Nevertheless, the management of foreign exchange by the
Government provided spurt to government expenditure and wages. As a consequence,
the inflow of sudden foreign exchange due to the sugar boom was converted into a
foreign exchange crisis. As these problems were systematically aggravated, a full- scale
structural adjustment policy (SAP), under the advice of IMF, was implemented.
Currency was devalued two times, 1979 and 1981 and under the demand management
exercise, efforts were directed towards control of imports and reduction of government
expenditure.
After 1982, growth prospects were accelerated due to political change, which favoured
the strategy of developing an export-oriented manufacturing sector, particularly textiles.
FDI profoundly contributed to this upsurge in industrial investment, employment and
exports. Nevertheless, a good deal of the Mauritian economic success can be attributed
to the favourable conditions both at home and abroad. Mauritius was well covered by the
Lome Convention’s sugar protocol for access to European market and the Multi-Fibre
Agreements for textile exports to Europe and the US. This effort was complemented by
appropriate policy intervention, political stability, the modernisation of the sugar
industry, and gradual diversification into offshore services, tourism and information
technology (IT).
Nevertheless, these encouraging trends have met with major setbacks in the recent years.
Rising cost of labour, erosion in the protected international markets due to gradual
episodes of globalisation and liberalisation and increasing competition with other
countries, and a severe drought have been some of the current strains for economic
development. Even though Mauritius witnessed a large-scale economic transformation,
socio-economic disparities have widened. These disparities can be found in terms of
incomes, capabilities, and opportunities having wide-ranging consequences for the
24
growth of human capability and social welfare. HDI, which takes into account income,
education and health factors, scaled down by which Mauritius lost its rank from 54th in
1995 to 59th in 1997. 4 Even though, Mauritius has joined the group of upper middle
income countries, its economic development is dependent upon narrow resource bases on
international trade and tourism. Loss of trade preferences and increased competition in
trade and tourism would entail severe implication for the economy.
2.2 M ACROECONOMIC TRENDS
2.2.1 Annual growth and unemployment
The growth rate in real terms started to rise from the time of the sugar boom in the early
70s, but it accelerated after 1983. The highest growth rate recorded was about 7% during
1985-89 (8.3% in 1987). The overall growth rate ranged between 5 and 6%.
Nevertheless, there have been some signs of stagnation in the recent years. The real
growth rate has declined from 6.2% in 1996 to 5.2% in 1998 (Table 1), and further to
2.5% (revised forecast) in 1999 (mainly due to the severe drought conditions of the
current year).
Starting from an unemployment rate of 20 per cent in the early 80s, the level of
employment increased to about 98 per cent in 1995. The unemployment rate decelerated
in the 90s to an average of 2% annually compared to more than 9% in the 80s. The rate of
unemployment has increased to 5.8% in 1998. While the male unemployment rate has
stabilised around 4%, the female unemployment rate is higher at about 10% (Table 1).
During the past few years, the increase in unemployment is mainly due to more female
workers entering the labour force. Female employment, however, is more concentrated
in EPZ firms (about two -thirds of EPZ employment). It is also important to note that
whereas there is a decline in employment in the EPZ-sub sector, much of the additional
employment has taken place in small business sector and small and medium enterprises
(SMEs). 5
2.2.2 Savings and Investment
Over the period 1982-97, the investment rate (gross domestic fixed capital formation)
(GDFCF) increased from 18% to 27% (Table 1). There is some slow-down in the rate of
investment after 1994, from 24.2% in 1995 to 23.8% in 1998. The growth rate of
GDFCF (excluding aircraft and marine vessels) has slumped from a positive growth of
14.1% in 1996 to –1.5% in 1997, but again rose to 7.7% in 1998. This decline was
witnessed particularly in domestic capital formation, as there was no perceptible decline
in FDI during this period. Nevertheless, FDI as proportion of GDP is only about 0.5% as
compared to Singapore (8%), Thailand (1.3%) and Malaysia (5.9%)6
25
2.2.3 Current account deficits and foreign exchange reserves
The current account deficit has fallen from (-) 7% of GDP 1982 to (-) 2.7% 1997. There
was a surplus in 1996 and 1998 (0.7% and 2% of GDP respectively) (Table 1). The re
has been gradually more dependence on invisible trade such as services and tourism and
on international remittances from non-resident Mauritians.
TABLE 1: KEY M ACROECONOMIC INDICATORS
Indicators
1982
1987
1992
Real growth rate (percent)
1995
1996
1997
1998
GDP
5.8
8.3
6.7
5.6
6.2
5.3
5.2
- Agriculture
19.4
-3.7
6.5
8.4
4.1
3.6
-1.4
- Manufacturing
Of which EPZ
- Tourism
5.2
14.6
6.6
5.9
5
9
6.2
7
16
5.8
6
10.2
6.3
6.9
8.2
- Construction
-4.1
9.0
9.0
-2.0
4.5
-1.0
6.0
- Government services
2.0
3.0
3.9
5.0
6.0
3.5
3.5
8.7
6.2
5.9
6.2
5.1
5.8
17.6
5.5
7.9
17.9
5.9
5.3
21.9
5.8
96
99
101
113
60
42
65
38.6
62
42.2
67
41.2
50.5
50.3
53.1
51
-0.6
0.7
-2.7
2.0
- Financing, insurance,
real estate and business services
Unemployment rate
Inflation rate
Exchange rate
20.2**
11.4
10.8
9.1
0.6
12.1
2.0
4.6
16.9
Terms of trade
Export as a % of GDP
Export as a % GDP
(excluding services)
Import as a % GDP
(excluding services)
Current account deficit
(percentage of GDP)
Overall public sector budget deficit (%
of GNP)
Debt service ratio
Domestic Debt as a % GDP
Foreign Debt as a % GDP
Savings rate
47
87
60
-1.1
-7
-3
-10.3
-1.2
-2.1
5.6
4.6
3.7
1.8
14
38
3.3
17
12.7
25.1
19
27.4
7
20.6
9.14
22.9
9.0
25
8.3
24.3
6.8
24.8
11.18
24
7.0
8.0
24.5
25.2
Investment rate
18
21.6
28.4
23.2
35.8
23.9
26
Foreign Direct Investment(%)
Import equivalent(weeks)
0.15
1.12
0.4
0.47
22
0.9
1.279
27.
23.7
35.8
23.9
30.4
14.1
-1.5
7.7
Public Sector Investment as a
6
33.7
36.8
32.9
% of GDFCF
GDFCF (excluding aircraft and marine
24.7
15.8
-5.9
vessel)
* 1976
** 1983
Source: International Financial Statistics and Bank of Mauritius Annual Reports
26
24.9
The total accumulated foreign reserves were able to meet the import requirements of 27
weeks at the end of 1997, which increased from 22 weeks, but it again fell to 23.7 weeks
in 1998.
The magnitude of foreign reserves has been under pressure, as there have been attempts
to arrest the depreciation of Rupee. There has been a marked decline in the exchange
rate. During the latter half of the 90s, adverse terms of trade, high balance of payments
deficits and lagging export performance caused about 21% depreciation of Rupee against
the Dollar and the Pound. This trend has more or less continued in later years. The
Rupee has appreciated slightly against French Franc. As roughly 35% of total exports
and 50% of total imports are denominated in US Dollar, these trends have consequences
for exports, imports and price level. It is to be noted that unlike other major currencies,
the newly introduced Euro has witnessed unpredictable movements, which may not be
considered good for the EPZ and the sugar sector.
2.2.4 Government budgetary balance and inflation rate
Overall budget deficits constituted less than 3% of GDP until 1992 but increased to about
6% of GDP in 1995. This trend is disturbing although attempts have been made to
reduce it to 4.6% in 1996-97, 3.7% in 1997 and 1.8% in 1998. The government has
improved the management of foreign debt by increasing creditworthiness. The debtservice ratio has been reduced from 9% in 1995 to 6.8% in 1996 and 8% in 1998. Debt
to GDP ratio has gone down but there will be gradual increase in this ratio as external
funds would be necessary to finance the major infrastructure projects.
The inflation rate has been a source of concern in the recent years. During the period of
the economic success story, the inflation rate was moderate at 2-3% per annum, which
can be considered a necessary condition for economic growth. But in the early 90s,
inflation has taken an upward trend, reaching a maximum of 7.9% in 1996. This rise in
price level can be attributed mostly to imported inflation, and to some extent to the
introduction of Value Added Tax in 1997 and exchange rate fluctuations.
2.2.5 Traditional Economic sectors
The share of agriculture has declined from 29.3% during early 70s to 12.3% in 1990 and
about 7.8% in 1998. The relative share of manufacturing, particularly EPZ, increased
rapidly. Agricultural growth has suffered a severe setback in the recent years, but both
EPZ and non-EPZ sub-sectors have maintained their growth rates (Table 1). The growth
of tourism sector was adversely affected in the early 90s by the Gulf War, however this
sector has consolidated its position. Tourist earnings constituted about 13% of GDP and
about 30% of exports in 1998. The growth rate of this sector has witnessed slight decline
in 1997-98, but there is a revival due to the rapid increase in tourist arrivals.
27
2.2.6 Emerging Service Sector: Financial and Business Services
Due to further diversification of the economy, the quaternary sector comprising the
financial services, free-port activities and offshore businesses, is now the fourth major
sector of the economy. It is being constantly developed in tune with the increasing
demands of a more modern trading environment. The necessary synergy between the
sub-sectors is being created to generate more value-added. With an average annual
growth of 10% over the past few years, its contribution to GDP has increased
considerably to reach 12.3% in 1998. This sector has maintained its growth rate during
recent years.
Mauritius has carved a comfortable niche in the world of international financial services
and has built its reputation as a trustworthy, stable and reputable offshore jurisdiction. Its
main objective is to position itself as an efficient economic bridge to important trade and
investment flows within the region and beyond. The success of the offshore sector has
been built primarily on the opportunities which Mauritius provides, such as its expanding
tax treaty network, its strategic location and its membership to major regional trading
blocs.
Mauritius is also progressively paving its way in establishing a solid investment fund
industry in the offshore sector. Latest figures show that 142 funds were registered of
which some 100 are active with a net asset base exceeding US $ 4.6 billion. South
Africa, the United States, India and Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) represent the major
sources of offshore investment. The offshore sector accounts for 2.5% of GDP or 22% of
the financial services sector value added.
2.2.7 Development of Free Port Activities
The rapid growth in free-port activities has entailed large-scale infrastructure expansion.
Freeport activities cover an area of about 55,000 m2, which is expected to reach 110,000
m2 by the year 2002. Besides, the Mauritius Freeport stands to serve as a valuable
instrument to facilitate the flow of goods in the region. So far, efforts to improve trade,
especially among COMESA, SADC and IOC countries, have centred mainly on trade
agreements and tariff reductions. But what is essential to note is that these regional blocs
represent a market of some 350 million consumers and an import market value of over
US $ 45 billion.
2.3 POLICY OPTIONS AND PERFORMANCE
There are three distinct policy episodes that would explain the growth process in the early
stages of development, namely import substitution (ISI), Structural adjustment (SAP) and
FDI- led export promoting strategy (EPS). Whereas ISI and EPS are dominant policy
options, SAP has been basically to smooth the transition from ISI to EPS. These policies
produced a wide range of effects on the various sectors of the economy.
28
2.3.1 Monocrop Economy and Import Substitution Strategy
The development strategy, for the period 1963-72, advocated by the Meade Commission
(1961) 7 consisted of an advalorem tax on sugar exports with a view to finance
diversification and restrain sugar production, arising from the quota price exceeding the
free- market price. The Commission examined the prospects for various other crops and
suggested land use and price support through marketing boards as alternatives. On the
industrial side, Commission urged the government to encourage diversification and
industrialisation through the use of fiscal incentives and disincentives. All the standard
devises of ISI were used—tariff barriers, import quotas, licensing etc. to protect domestic
producers and reduce imports to address the balance of payments crisis. One of the major
recommendations of the Commission was to restrain wages to increase employment and
for the rise of export-oriented manufacturing.
During the 1960s, about 100 development certificates were issued to a variety of
industries, which tended to rely on relatively capital intensive methods due to
Government’s high wage policy and duty-free capital imports. This policy undoubtedly
brought adverse effects on job creation, but in the short run high wages improved social
welfare at the cost of reduced rents and profits, and hence investment. Economic growth
suffered consequently. Emergency welfare programmes and other welfare measures put
pressure on the government budget, which produced current budgetary deficits.
2.3.2 Sugar Boom and Budgetary Expansion
During the period 1972-79, there was marked economic growth occasioned by an
improved terms of trade due to sugar boom. The government favoured controlled
increase in real wages and extended social services by investing in educational and health
facilities, public utilities and low- income housing. In an attempt to raise revenues to
meet the fast expanding transfer expenditures, the 6% export tax on sugar was replaced
by a graduated tax. Despite tax revenue increases, by 1979, the fiscal deficit amounted to
13% and public debt to 48% of GDP.
New investment opportunities, however, opened up under the EPZ and the hotel industry
by expanding the package of fiscal incentives to investors. It is estimated that during this
period sugar profits financed about half of investment in the EPZ sector (the other half
came from foreign sources). Sugar surpluses continued to finance the industrial growth
and resulting diversification of the economy. However, the co-existence of highly
protected ISI firms and export-oriented firms, and overvalued currency did not exert any
appreciable impact on the growth plane. Labour gained at the expense of sugar profits
and reinvestment, which improved the social scene to some extent.
2.3.3 Structural Adjustment and Fiscal Austerity
The policy of direct controls and budgetary expansion pushed the economy to full- scale
structural adjustment under the supervision of IMF and aid from the World Bank sources.
SAP consisted of successive recourse to SDR facility with the associated conditionalities
29
such as devaluation of rupee, phased reduction in the fiscal deficit, limits on government
borrowing etc. The programme called for close monitoring of public sector investments,
simplification and rationalisation of taxes, liberalisation of the economy, and structural
reform. The policy of fiscal balance, reduction of subsidies on rice and flour, devaluation
and wage restraint improved the competitive position of export-oriented manufacturing
industries. The socialistic stance of the government was promoted by taxing the windfall
profits on export due to devaluation. Restrained growth of wages, however, generated an
anti- labour bias, which was nevertheless mitigated by rising employment.
2.3.4 FDI Led Export Promoting Strategy
The period of export- led manufacturing growth from 1982 onwards, witnessed
unprecedented growth in income and employment, particularly of female labour. The
wage restraint and subsidy curtailment affected the working class adversely but real per
capita increased by 28% between 1983 and 1987. During the period of over a decade, the
average growth rate has been about 5-6% per annum. Tourism sector has complemented
and consolidated the process of economic development. On the export tax issue, the
government moved gradually, dictated by considerations of efficiency. The proceeds of
this tax is no longer a source of government revenue and is currently utilised for the
modernisation needs of the sugar sector. The development strategy is more geared
towards diversification of the economy to meet the challenges of globalisation, and
higher emphasis is being placed on the growth of financial services, the offshore sector,
and IT industry. Attempts have been made to improve the status of the working class
through free health care, free education and other selected subsidies.
2.3.5 Social Development
During the process of economic transformation, attempts have been made to address the
adverse social effects of rapid economic growth. Nevertheless, it is disheartening to note
that public expenditure on education and health has not changed significantly to have an
appreciable impact on citizen’s access to these services. In fact, public expenditure on
education has declined as a proportion of total expenditure and GDP (Table 2). There is
some marginal increase in expenditure on social services and welfare, which is
predominantly on social security.
TABLE 2: S ELECTED SOCIAL WELFARE INDICATORS
Year
Education
1979
1985
1990
1995
1998
% GTE
17.7
13.8
14.2
15.4
14.7
Health
%GDP
3.5
3.4
Source: CSO, Annual Digest of Statistics
30
% GTE
8.0
7.6
8.7
8.6
8.3
%GDP
2.1
2.0
Social
Service
and
Welfare
% GTE
%GDP
17.2
12.8
13.1
3.2
17.3
20.6
4.9
Increase in unemployment in recent years accompanied by inflation has contributed to a
loss of purchasing power. It has been noted that the incidence of unemployment is higher
among female workers. The increase in unemployment in recent years accompanied by
inflation has contributed to a loss of purchasing power and in particular with respect to
women as indicated by unemployment trends. In 1999, the unemployment rate was
11.3% for female workers and 4.0% for male workers compared to 2.2% for females and
3.0% for males in 1991.
A general deterioration in income distribution is confirmed by the trend in income shares
of different groups. The Gini coefficient decreased from 0.396 in 1986-87 to 0.379 in
1991-92, but increased marginally to 0.387 in 1996-97. There is no official poverty line
in Mauritius. But according to World Bank estimates, in 1992 about 10% of the
population in Mauritius had incomes of less than Rs 2168 per month. 8 In fact, some
sections of the population have accumulated economic and social disabilities from
previous generation and over a period of time due to lack of an effective incomes policy.
2.4 DEVELOPMENT CONSTRAINTS
2.4.1 The Characteristics of the Mauritian Economy as a SIDS
A number of characteristics, which emanate from the small geographical size and
population and location of Mauritius, have consequences for labour market, financial
market and FDI decisions. The economy suffers from limited human resource capacity in
the form of skill and technical competence. This has produced upward pressure on wages
much before full employment has been reached. Limited access to financial markets for
concessional credit due to small economy and less creditworthiness has hampered the
growth of an active financial sector. Similarly, an absence of a large domestic market
and being far away from present-day sea-lanes has attracted only small MNCs and
offered little incentive for R&D. Moreover, limited land area allows much less flexibility
for the rational land use to improve comparative advantage in competing activities,
namely agriculture, industry and tourism.
The smallness of the Mauritian economy has increased the role of external capital and
labour, and hence structural imbalances. Structural problems may occur rapidly and get
transmitted to different sectors easily as the degree of integration of different sectors in
the economy is very high. Thus, they are more vulnerable to external shocks and enjoy
limited independence in formulating macroeconomic policies.
Environmental factors make SIDS very vulnerable economies. Small island states argue
that there should be some compensatory mechanism in proportion to the extent of
vulnerability due to climate change. The Declaration of Barbados (1994) reaffirmed that
SIDS are particularly vulnerable to natural as well as environmental disasters and have
limited capacity to respond to such disasters and calamities. While such states are among
those that contribute least to global climate change and sea-level rise, they are among
those that would suffer most from the adverse effects of such phenomena.
31
The vulnerable coastal zones and oceans against the effects of land -based sources of
pollution, limited fresh water resources, increasing amounts of waste and hazardous
substances and limited facilities for waste water management are some of the critical
issues for small islands. This is particularly the case for low lying coral based islands like
Mauritius, where ground water supplies are limited and are protected only by a thin
permeable soil. Even where rainfall is abundant, access to clean water has been restricted
by the lack of adequate storage facilities.
2.4.2 Declining Agriculture
Good climate and preferential treatment under the Lomé Convention have been the
driving force for agricultural growth. Now, both good climate and preferential treatment
are threatened. The cycle of cyclones, which occur almost every year during the summer
months has been disturbed, and rain-carrying cyclones have become less frequent in the
recent year, resulting in severe drought conditions. The heavy dependence of the
irrigation system on rainfall and the low storage capacity of water caused a drastic fall in
cane crop and hence sugar exports. Given the nature of sugar-specific technology,
machines remain unutilised. Labour has been unemployed with no immediate
employment opportunities in the face of rising unemployment. This new class of
unemployed constitutes a new vulnerable group adding to the problems of social
development and cohesion.
Agricultural diversification has not proceeded due to climatic conditions and nonavailability of land. In fact, some tea estates have been converted into sugar plantations.
This shows that under the Lomé preferences, cane cultivation is still profitable. Minor
import substituting non-sugarcane activities such as inter-line cropping therefore do not
change the profile of agricultural sector.
Nevertheless, with conclusion of WTO agreement, preferential treatment under Lomé
will be phased out in 2005. Thus, in the face of globalisation, the sugar industry will
have to be more cost effective to improve its competitive edge, and will have to diversify
into production of superior varieties of sugar. This would require more skill and human
resources specific to this industry. Besides conventional agricultural diversification, the
manufacturing of electricity from bagasse offers new opportunities. It is expected that
the current contribution of 10% to the national grid will increase to about 40% in 2010.
The success of the manufacturing of electricity would, however, depend on the
production of sugarcane, which is currently experiencing a severe downturn, due to the
drought.
There are other initiatives, which have engendered opportunities as well as challenges for
the sugar sector. Regionalisation of this sector is an example. The takeover of the
management of sugar estates in Benin, Tanzania and Ivory Coast, and the rehabilitation
of the ex-sugar estates in Mozambique present immense growth avenues. With
considerable experience in sugar technology and R&D in the sector, the viability of a
regional sugar economic zone would be much less threatened.
32
Agriculture in Rodrigues is basically rain-fed and the major crops under cultivation are
maize, cassava, beans (pulse), sweet potatoes and vegetables. The major livestock reared
are cattle, sheep, pigs, goats and poultry. Total livestock production in Rodrigues not
only meets the subsistence requirements of the island but also generates surplus for
export to the island of Mauritius.
2.4.3 Manufacturing Sector: Structural Constraints
FDI arrivals are guided by location-specific advantages arising from cheap labour and
preferential treatment under Multi-Fibre arrangement. MNCs located in Mauritius have
to compete with developed country MNCs operating in developed country markets with
international best-practice technology. Recent trends in the EPZ sector, however, reveal
that this sector suffers from basic structural problems.
There is a heavy concentration of clothing and textiles in total EPZ exports (they
constituted about more than 70% of total exports). An additional 10% of EPZ exports is
provided by a number of products, which have not been able to diversify the exports to
any meaningful extent. The overwhelming significance of European markets (more than
80%) is another source of concern. American markets occupy about 15% and COMESA
and SADC represent about 2%. This lack of product and market diversification increases
the vulnerability of export firms to external shocks. Export instability would increase
over time, as we have experienced in the case of sugar.
About 95% of EPZ exports are low-skill products, compared to Singapore, where lowskill intensity of exports is about 12% 9 . Similarly, labour intensity is about 90% in
Mauritius, and is only 8.5% in Singapore. It is also vital to note that the expenditure on
R&D by EPZ firms is very low as compared to other newly industrialised countries.
This shows the extent of relative stagnation of Mauritian products in terms of
technological development and changes in consumer preference.
The rate of effective protection is much higher than the nominal protection (nominal
tariffs) because export firms enjoy duty exemptions on the import of raw materials and
intermediate inputs, and a wide ranging subsidies and concessions. According to Milner
and McKay (1996), 10 the average effective rate of protection for manufacturing has
declined from 115% 1980 to 65% in 1990. The current rate may be lower but these are
still quite high rates of effective protection, providing protection to relatively inefficient
firms.
The export industry structure is highly concentrated. The proportion of big firms is not
less than 55-60% of which about 40% are foreign firms. These firms are technologically
advanced and financially sound. This dichotomy between large and small firms is
another source of instability in exports. Large and small firms undertake all the processes
of manufacturing independent of each other. Given that labour has become more
expensive, large firms have been forced to resort to modernisation and labour-saving
technologies. But this feature can provide additional strength to the industry if there is
co-ordination between them.
33
There are other developments, which threaten the very basis of FDI arrivals. Unit labour
costs have increased from 100 in 1982 to 327 in 1997, which was matched by labour
productivity growth from 100 to 136 during the same period. Increasing inflation and
higher interest rates due to gradual financial liberalisation have escalated the cost of
capital and dampened the investment prospects in EPZ firms. Competition from low-cost
Asian, African and transition economies, which have liberalised their FDI regulations, is
gradually becoming a source of grave concern. Top heavy bureaucratic procedures in
issuing FDI permits and work and residence permits for expatriates act as a disincentive.
Likewise, the threat of elimination of preferential access to EUI and US markets with the
expiry of Multi-Fibre Agreement in 2005 is likely to work as a deterrent for both
forthcoming FDI and domestic investors.
The manufacturing sector in Rodrigues is limited to a few enterprises, namely stone
crushing, baking, metal works, woodwork, garment making, shoe making and small agroindustries. The industries produce primarily for the limited local market. The
infrastructural and training facilities are not adequate enough to enable the production of
high quality goods which could be exported to Mauritius or overseas.
2.4.4 Tourism sector
The tourism sector lacks diversification as Mauritius offers basically coastal tourism.
Thus, Mauritius has to compete with other destinations providing wider range of tourist
products at cheaper costs. Since it is located far from present-day sea-lanes, travels costs
tend to become prohibitive. Nevertheless, given the up-market tourism, tourist arrivals
have been phenomenal. What is important to note is that tourism, being an importintensive activity, has implications for prices and cost of living for the resident
population, as evidenced in small countries like Seychelles. International tourism also
presents a threat to the social fabric of a multicultural society like Mauritius.
The expansion of tourism is an opportunity but there are also environmental challenges.
The sustainable development of tourism will largely depend on the strength of its
backward linkages with coastal resources and the environment. These linkages can be
strengthened by environmental protection from damages due to international tourism,
which have budgetary consequences. The financing of environmental projects for
protecting environment and improving visitor destinations is a major problem. Most
tourism is a private, hard-to-tax activity and hence tourist tax collections have been very
sluggish (Nath 1998).
There has been a growing tendency in the tourist sector to sell Rodrigues as a special
exotic destination, and to promote “eco-tourism” in the island. However, product
marketing has not been very been effective, and the sector has not altogether developed
as desired. Limited accessibility, and poor infrstructure have been contributory factors.
The three main tourist hotels at Pointe Cotton, Murouk and Port Mathurin have got low
occupancy rate, incomparable with those in Mauritius. The development of the tourist
sector is not proceeding according to a definite plan and the socio-economic impact of the
sector has not been assessed. The unplanned growth of tourism is sensed to cause
irreversible damages to the socio-economic and physical environment, for example,
34
pollution of the lagoon, further degradation of the soil, and eroding of cultural values and
traditions. There is need to conduct a tourist promotion study and develop a Tourist
Development Plan for Rodrigues.
2.4.5 Financial Services, Off-Shore Banking and Information Technology
International financial and banking services offer enormous growth prospects for a SIDS.
But these services are high skill intensive and do not create mass employment. Value
added in this sector has increased without generating enough jobs, and these services
have employed only trained graduates and diplomats. This jobless growth may not be
economically and socially acceptable.
The skill formation specific to this sector requires investment in training, which will
entail a drain on public finances. Financial and infrastructure limitations may constrain
the supply of trained personnel and jeopardise the growth of this sector.
2.5 EMERGING CHALLENGES AND TASKS AHEAD
2.5.1 Maintaining Macroeconomic Stability
Macroeconomic stability provides impetus to growth and safeguards the livelihood
strategies of the most vulnerable sections of population against inflation. Budgetary
reforms should comprise targeted policies on taxes and expenditures and public sector
budgetary deficits, on the one hand, and prudent exchange rate management, on the other.
Budgetary reforms should also be done with a view to ensuring gender sensitivity.
2.5.2 Responding to Globalisation
The rapid strides in globalisation of economic activities and liberalisation, after the
conclusion of GATT and the establishment of WTO, have gradually limited the benefits
arising from the status of the most-favoured nation and tax haven. The newly emerging
international trade order has initiated a wave of reduction in tariffs and quantitative
controls on imports, and subsidies and tax concessions to exporters. The imports of
intermediate products such as yarn, clothing, and capital goods, which previously did not
attract import duties, in the changed circumstances will be subjected to these levies.
Various types of fiscal concessions will also be gradually restructured and phased.
There will be at least three types of impacts of trade liberalisation, namely on revenue,
domestic industry due to increased competition from foreign producers, and prices.
According to the Imani Report (1999), 11 the implementation of trade liberalisation
measures under the WTO would result in loss of trade tax revenues including VAT of the
order around 4.5% of total central government recurrent revenue. As regards the impact
on domestic industry arising from the restructuring of taxes on imports of finished goods
and raw materials, it has been shown to be marginal. It may also be important to note
that there will be similar revenue implications when Mauritius joins regiona l blocks. The
calculations indicated by the study show that Mauritius would lose between 22% and
35
33% of revenue collections from the taxes on trade with countries in SADC. Due to
restructuring of tariffs, besides revenue loss on account of trade taxes and VAT, the
impact on domestic industry is likely to be greater. However, due to increased
competition with foreign products, there may be a decline in the prices of selected goods
for the benefit of consumers.
The main challenge, however, is how to manage the integration of the Mauritian
economy into the global economy. The objective should be to exploit the opportunities
globalisation offers for achieving high and sustainable growth, generating employment
and eradicating poverty, while minimising the risks of economic and social
marginalisation. Meeting this challenge will require strong national actions and
strengthened national institutions, but also a broader vision of development that
encompasses people-centred development and addresses its relationships with the various
phases of globalisation.
2.5.3 Expanding the Economic Space
There is growing recognition that in the face of globalisation, the promotion of regional
co-operation and integration would prove to be a powerful development strategy, which
will allow Mauritius to expand its limited economic base. The extension of this logic
would suggest that economic opportunities can be further enhanced by joining more than
one group, as some groups may have greater comparative advantage in certain economic
activities than others. At present, Mauritius is a member of Indian Ocean Commission
(IOC), Common Market for Eastern and South Africa (COMESA), South African
Development Community (SADC) and Indian Ocean Rim- Association of Regional Cooperation (IOR-ARC).
2.5.4 Strengthening Regional Integration Efforts
This expansion of space should embrace Africa, Asia and Gulf countries in the region.
Regional growth triangles, one of the recent experiments in regional co-operation, will
allow the pooling of resources of member countries with harmonised policies under Cross
Border Initiatives (CBI). The growth triangle has already made considerable progress in
helping countries by complementing the comparative advantage of other member
countries. Singapore has one of the most impressive programmes in Asia to attract
MNCs to establish regional headquarters (RHQs) in Singapore. RHQs carry out a wide
array of activities ranging from servicing regional customers to R&D work. They have
concentrated in high growth industries, namely electronics, chemicals, engineering
services, and hospitality and franchise management services. There are three types of
schemes, namely operations, business and manufacturing. The latter scheme for firms,
which has a significant manufacturing presence in Singapore and provides regional
technical services, offers incentives like low corporate tax rates and double deduction of
qualifying R&D expenses against income.
There is also a great need to promote reverse FDI, that is, Maurit ian investors visiting
developing country destinations, particularly in the African region as FDI. The de-
36
localisation of the textile industries in Madagascar, which started ten years ago is an
illustrative example as a stepping stone for expanding the economic space. Similarly,
Mauritius Telecom has already expanded its activities by entering the regional market in
partnership with operators in South Africa, Madagascar, Mozambique, and Comoros.
Mauritian trade with Africa is only about 5% of total trade. Intra-IOC trade accounts for
about 3% of total foreign trade of the group, but this share is 20% for SADC and IORARC. It is crucial to diversify the present structure of the direction of trade to meet the
challenges of WTO and the negotiations on the Post-Lome IV Convention.
There is an urgent need for institutional support and enhanced skills to manage the
regional trade and development initiatives. Mauritius must aim at developing as a centre
of excellence in education, training, and R&D with a view to supplying skilled labour
force to meet the needs of both domestic and regional public and private sectors. The
development of training and research programmes can evolve on a phased manner giving
first priority to international management and multinational finance, management of
governance, technology management, environment and coastal management and
management of marine resources.
2.5.5 Trade in Services and IT
Under the umbrella of WTO, trade reform in services including tourism will have
implications for Mauritius. Mauritius is involved in a globally competitive niche in
offshore finance (banking and insurance) and the use of tradable service inputs in its
production. These are high value added services. The advances that have been made in
IT can give economic spin-offs, if the country enters into international trade of IT.
Article IV of the General Agreement on Trade and Services (GATS) provides assistance
to developing countries to develop IT systems and distribution networks. These growing
markets can be tapped by developing and marketing best practice IT technologies.
2.5.6 Revitalising the EPZ Sector
The forthcoming shocks to the industrial sector can be addressed only by increasing the
magnitude of their value added through upgrading and/or diversifying. There is a need to
shift the focus from conventional EPZ products to high-skill and high-tech textiles and
apparels, and to diversify markets.
Developing a link between wages and productivity is of paramount significance. One of
the tests of well- functioning labour markets is their ability to respond to the adjustment
needs of economic transformation process. The tendency on the part of wages to adjust
upwards is confirmed. During the period of structural adjustment in the early eighties,
even in the presence of IMF conditionality, government did not adopt wage restraint
policies. During the recessionary trends, post-1990s, the rate of wage inflation did not
witness a decline or slow down. What is most urgent is to increase labour productivity to
match wages by expanding training and retraining programmes.
37
2.5.7 Developing Enterprise through SMEs
SMEs provide a second line of defence for the EPZ sector in terms of employment, value
added and exports. Only 7% of the sampled enterprises were shown to have a fixed
capital of more than Rs 5 million. A large number of SMEs are organised on an informal
basis, and they present income and employment opportunities to many. About 80% of
them are individual and partnership firms. According to CSO’s Census of Small
Industries conducted in 1992, there were 40,947 small establishments including all types
of units engaged in manufacturing, trade and services, with a total employment
representing 24% of labour force and 21% of GDP.
In a short period of time, they have acquired some technical competence. Nevertheless,
the lack of qualified maintenance staff, and high prices of imported spare parts were
found to be one of the most critical issues, constituting an important barrier to investing
in high and new technology by SMEs.
The special needs of SMEs are market information, skills, management training, finance
and technical support. The institutional support for the development of SMEs is provided
by Small and Medium Industry Development Organisation (SMIDO), which is also
responsible for promoting the exports of SMEs. Its major programme, the common
facilities centre, needs to be upgraded. There are also very few technical staff. This
hampers the demonstration and diffusion capability routines of the centre, which is
greatly needed to improve the design and manufacturing skills of SMEs.
It is also noted that there is no culture of inter-enterprise sharing of facilities. A largescale market survey for ancillary products is required. Establishing technology parks,
collaborations with overseas partners and institutions for technology transfer, and
creation of common facilities for technology services need urgent attention. New
strategies need to be evolved to promote technical co-operation with newly
industrialising countries to expand and strengthen the role of FDI by SMEs.
Small enterprises in Rodrigues are mostly involved in handicrafts, which is an important
source of income to many families. Local materials such as “vetiver”, aloes and coconut
shells are utilised to manufacture handicrafts products for sale to tourists and in
Mauritius.
2.5.8 Credit facilities
Credit has been used, through Development Bank of Mauritius (DBM) in the past to
finance income- generating activities. When credit is used as a process that creates an
environment that is conducive to income-generating activities, it attains a social
dimension because it may reduce social inequalities. There are also significant gender
implications of credit facilities. With rising female unemployment, credit-financed SMEs
growth can be an important source of women’s economic empowerment.
The institutional inadequacy for financial support is basically due to cumbersome
formalities and collateral obligations. Banks including DBM are not equipped to deal
38
with small enterprises. There is a great need to develop the institutional capability to
address the needs of SMEs in manufacturing, services and agriculture. The government
has proposed to create a National Entrepreneurs Bank (NEB) to meet the credit needs of
this sector. There may be a need to involve more than one or two banks and financial
institutions in the job of providing credit to SMEs. In fact, multi-lateral lending can be
more advantageous compared to bilateral lending since it allows cross checking and
exchange of information.
2.5.9 Mixing grant with credit
In developing countries, where the cost of money is usually high, credit presents a natural
bias in favour of high- yielding activities. Since SMEs have a significant effect on the
income status of less rich segments of the society, it has been proposed that mixing credit
with grants on an ad hoc basis may provide a way to allow the financing of potentially
high- yielding activities.
An example of this kind exists in the Mauritian EPZ sector. The Technology Diffusion
Scheme (TDS) was set- up to grant private firms half the cost of buying services for
raising competitiveness, improved productivity, quality and design services, and
information on new technology. It was expected that 359 EPZ units would use the
scheme, at an average of $10,00. Firms receive one grant for each service (they can
avail of more than one grant for different services) and thereafter, they will have to pay
the full market cost of the service. Several institutions were involved in technology
support services, namely EPZ, MSB, SMIDO, MEPZA but TDS aimed at promoting the
use of technical consultancy services and making it acceptable by the industry.
A series of measures have been taken to boost up investment in Rodrigues. These include
freight subsidy on shipment on some goods and raw materials to Rodrigues, the setting
up of a Rodrigues Venture Capital and Leasing Fund to assist small enterprises and the
Rodrigues Loan Guaratee Fund.
2.5.10 Upgrading Technical Skills
Skill shortages and technological factors have shown to be significant constraints to
growth of exports and upgrading of product design and packaging. Enrolments in the
three core technological subjects Natural Science, Mathematics, and Computer and
Engineering together at the University of Mauritius account for only 0.04% of the
population. This is against about 2.8% of the level reached in Korea and about 31% of the
level reached in India, Indonesia and Bangladesh (Lall and Wignaraja, 1998). 12 It is vital
to note that enrolment in technological subjects is even lower for women.
Tertiary level enrolments alone cannot produce the requisite skilled labour supply. A
lack of technical institutions is the major drawback. The University and IVTB do not
offer wide range of courses in technical education and training. The culture of in- house
training has picked up slowly. There are about 12 firms in 1996, which have in-house
training programmes. The number of employees being sent on external training has
increased considerably in textiles and garments, chemical and electronics. Despite this,
39
the supply of trained personnel has not increased in consonance with the growing demand
and the potential demand to meet the technical challenges of up-gradation and quality
production.
2.5.11 Raising Human Capability
Experience shows that growth-enhancing policies need to be complemented by initiatives
that explicitly focus on making sure that the benefits of rapid growth are widely shared.
This would entail widening opportunity throughout society by expanding human capital
investment that includes all the people. Government intervention to improve access to
educational opportunities, broad-based skill accumulation, and basic health facilities
especially for the rural and female population will enable these groups to share in
employment and earnings opportunities.
2.6 DONOR INTERVENTIONS
2.6.1 Past and current interventions
International donor agencies have intervened with a view to mitigating the adverse
impacts of development constraints and to enhancing capacity building to meet these
challenges. Projects on poverty alleviation, private-sector support and information
dissemination have been the major intervention activities.
Regarding poverty, there is the Marshall Plan for poverty alleviation, a UNDP poverty
project on promoting income-generating activities in Rodrigues, and a EU poverty
programme. Donor intervention in Rodrigues’ economic development aims at
encouraging and empowering the poorest communities to enable them to take care of
their developmental needs. One of the important components is to get access to microfinance, such as credit unions and Grameen bank schemes.
The UN system assisted with a review of investment policy to help identify strategies to
attract FDI and to increase the pace of diversification to non-textiles. The objective was
basically to provide recommendations geared to increase the contribution of FDI to
sustainable economic and human development.
Enterprise Mauritius Project seeks to develop a new generation of dynamic and
successful SMEs that can contribute significantly to enhancing productivity,
competitiveness, job creation and sustainable livelihoods. The programme provides an
integrated and comprehensive scheme of services, ranging from business plan
development, training, and credit to technology upgradation and export development at
the enterprise level using a hands-on approach. SME development projects were aimed
at diversifying the industrial base and at the same time generating income opportunities
for women entrepreneurs and the economically weak in the society.
Assistance was provided to build institutional capacity in both private and public sectors.
One of the major instruments is the Build-Operate and Transfer (BOT) framework. The
40
aim is to develop basic administrative, legal and contractual framework with regard to the
application of the Concessional Project scheme for the development of the county’s
infrastructure. The BOT scheme has been used in two projects, namely the Free Port
project and the bagasse power plants.
The UNDP funded SIDSnet project involved the building of electronic networking
amongst SIDS. The objective was to build information capacity by encouraging small
island nations to share experiences regarding sustainable development issues unique to
small islands.
Vision 2020 (NLTPS, 1997) 13 has been a major project to undertake an overall
assessment of the various sectors of the economy and build different scenarios for
Mauritius in the coming decades of the 21st century. There are several follow-up
programmes to restructure the economic, social and technological sectors.
Technical assistance activities being implemented by UNCTAD comprise country
projects focusing on globalisation, regionalisation and debt management, international
trade in goods and services including environmental issues, investment, enterprise
development and technology and services infrastructure including HRD and microfinance
and port management for development and trade efficiency. UNCTAD and UNDP have
launched in 1998 a 3- year global programme to enhance the ability of LDCs to manage
their integration into the global economy in a manner supportive of sustainable human
development.
2.7 POTENTIAL AREAS FOR THE UN-SYSTEM INTERVENTION
1. Improving the Quality of Decision Making and Governance
• Boosting the consultative mechanism of decision-making with a view to
inculcating the sense of ownership of policies and programmes among the
stakeholders.
• Expanding and diversifying the product line of the civil service supported by
need-based training and retraining.
• Fostering institutional development for decentralised decision- making and good
governance.
2. Diversifying the Dynamic Economic Base
• Participating in regional blocks to expand the economic space and markets.
• Exploiting the opportunities offered by the emerging off shore banking and
business and free-port services.
• Entering the rapidly rising global market for information technology.
• Expanding the economic base of SMEs by appropriate incentive mechanism and
targeting.
• Promoting and marketing of handicraft products of Rodridues
• Expanding opportunities for incoming and outgoing FDI.
41
3. Upgrading the Skills of Labour
• Streamlining the working of technical training institutions also with a view to
reducing gender inequalities in these fields.
• Designing incentive mechanisms for in- house training and retraining.
4. Expanding Human Capability
• Micro financing of income generating projects.
• Expanding the network of government-sponsored social institutions and NGOs.
• Targeting credit and undertaking poverty alleviation programmes.
• Fostering local economic development and improving access to services to have
an appreciable impact on social inequalities.
5. Developing and Maintaining Infrastructure
• Extending BOT-type projects to air and road transport development.
• Attracting FDI to energy, water and transport sectors.
• Expanding the potential of reservoirs and supplementing the existing water supply
capacity by ground water and desalination sources, especially in Rodrigues
• Consolidating alternative energy sources (solar, wind and bagasse).
6. Preserving Environmental Resources for International Tourism
• Expanding the Exclusive Economic Zone by identifying and financing projects on
development and protection of coastal zone, coral reefs, fisheries and marine
resources.
• Conducting a Tourist Promotion Study, and developing a Tourist Development
Plan for Rodrigues
• Participating in regional environmental improvement initiatives.
• Developing Master Plan for industrial and automotive pollution abatement.
42
3.0 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
3.1 INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS
3.1.1 World Social Summit
In conformity with the U.N General Assembly resolution 47/92 of December 16, 1992,
the World Summit for Social Development was held in Copenhagen on 6-12 March 1995.
The innovative character of the Copenhagen agreements is that they brought together, for
the first time into a coherent and integrated framework, several of the dimensions of
social development endorsed by previous world conferences. This framework recognises
the multidimensional nature of poverty and calls for an intersectoral and holistic approach
to people-centred sustainable development. Although country specificities and
differences were taken into account, the following policy priorities were identified:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Establishment of an enabling economic and social environment for people centred
development
Eradication of poverty
Empowering all people for self reliance
Improving access to basic infrastructure and social services
Promoting job creation and sustainable livelihoods
Ensuring equitable access to credit and productive assets
Expanding social protection for vulnerable people
Promoting gender equity and the full participation of women in development
Expansion of productive employment and social integration.
Achievement of equality and equity between women and men
Ensuring that structural adjustment programmes include social development goals
Preserving people’s security in the context of rapid and sometimes disruptive
globalisation
Attaining universal and equitable access to education and primary health care.
Strengthening co-operation for social development through the UN
The responsibility for implementing the Social Summit commitments lies mainly at the
national level, with Governments working in partnership with civil society, and with
extensive support form the international community when required.
3.1.2 Employment
In 1998, member states of the ILO adopted a Declaration on Fundamental Principles and
Rights at Work which member states have undertaken to promote and realise even if not
officially ratify.
These conventions relate to:
43
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Liberty of association
Elimination of forced labour
Elimination of child labour
Elimination of discrimination related to employment and occupation
In the case of Mauritius, the declaration concerns particularly three unratified
conventions: no. 87 on Freedom of Association and Nos 100 and 111 on equal
remuneration and non-discrimination respectively. Concerning child labour, a key
convention (No 182) on the worst forms of child labour was adopted in 1999.
3.1.3 Housing
The Second UN Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat II) was held in 1996 in
Istanbul. The main commitments were the following:
•
•
•
•
Adequate shelter for all
Sustainable human settlements
Participation and gender equality
Financing human settlements
The strategies for implementing the plan of action were as follows:
•
•
•
•
•
Action to be taken to achieve adequate shelter for all and sustainable human
settlements development in an urbanising world
Ways to promote efficient land markets and sustainable land use
Ways to mobilise financing and facilitating access to land and security of tenure
Actions that Governments can take to integrated shelter policies with macroeconomic, social and environmental policies
Actions to improve shelter delivery systems
The strategies emphasise that individuals, families and communities must be able to
improve their housing. Governments should promote better housing by prohibiting
discrimination and ensuring legal security of tenure and equal access to land.
3.1.4 Cultural Diversity
Mauritius signed the UNESCO Convention concerning the Protection of the World
Cultural and Natural Heritage in 1995. The Convention aims at identifying and protecting
certain unique cultural and natural heritage sites in member states.
3.2 GOVERNMENT S TRATEGIES AND POLICIES RESPONDING TO INTERNATIONAL
INSTRUMENTS
3.2.1 Social Development Strategies
44
In line with resolutions voted at the Copenhagen Summit and “L’Annee Internationale de
la Lutte pour l’Eradication de la Pauvrete”, a two day seminar was organised in 1996 on
“Les Etats Generaux du Social”.14 This seminar provided a forum for the different agents
of social development, opinion leaders and socially committed thinkers from all walks of
social life and sectors of the Mauritian economy to meet and discuss issues pertinent to
the social development of Mauritius. The main objectives were: to diagnose the social
problems and ills of our society; to analyse the functioning and malfunctioning of the
social security mechanism in relation to the social realities of the present and of the
future; and to make proposals for cohesive and comprehensive policy formulation in the
areas of Social Security and National Solidarity.
The Ministry of Social Security and National Solidarity has issued a policy paper entitled
Development Strategies 1998-2000 and a White Paper on Social Development is being
prepared by the same Ministry with the support of UNDP. A number of studies have been
commissioned on the problem of social exclusion including the report on social exclusion
commissioned by the President of the Republic, 15 the study of Access to Social Services
16
and the Social Fabric Study funded by the Mauritius Research Council. 17
3.2.2 Housing Strategies
In the wake of the Habitat II Conference, the Ministry of Housing and Land Development
has set up a steering Committee which consists of government officials, t he private sector
and NGOs and makes recommendations to the Ministry in line with the Habitat Agenda
for Action.
Although official figures indicate a very high rate of owner-occupiers compared with
other countries, these figures hide other quite serious problems of housing which may
culminate into a crisis in years to come if some issues are not addressed in time. Social
housing programmes for low income groups which had begun in the 1960s, gave way to a
new housing strategy based on cost recovery through the setting up of a public company,
The National Housing Development Company Limited (NHDC) in 1991.
The Mauritius Housing Corporation (MHC) used to build houses for middle income
groups at the time when the Central Housing Authority (CHA) was catering for lowincome groups through their programme of social housing. With the shift away from the
policy of social housing to cost recovery and affordability principles, the MHC no longer
does so but provides soft loans to those below a certain income ceiling for the
construction of their houses. The MHC started a scheme known as PEL (Plan Epargne
Logement). The initial condition for entering the scheme is the opening of a savings
account with the Corporation which makes the person eligible for a loan to buy an NHDC
house.
Apart from housing problems in deprived suburban regions, the other major housing
problem for Government has been the sugar industry housing estates built to
accommodate sugar workers near their work sites. All successive governments since
Independence regularly reiterate their pledge to gradually dismantle these “sugar estate
camps” which remain powerful symbols of the sugar plantation hierarchy of the 19th
45
Century. A study carried out in 1990 18 revealed that there were still 125 such estates. On
the basis of the findings of this survey on the long term suitability of these lodgings,
Government took the decision that sugar estates should embark on a large scale rehousing programme which would enable the phasing out of as many of these sugar estate
camps as possible. The options offered were either the outright elimination of existing
housing estates with the inhabitants resettled on an alternative site, or the sale of existing
houses to their current occupants.
In order to encourage the construction of low- income apartment blocks, a special scheme
has been introduced to enable low- income groups to benefit from special tax and duty
concessions. However, this has not proved to be very efficient as apartments built on that
basis and which were meant for low-income groups have in fact been bought by middleincome households.
Special development programmes have also been financed to improve the infrastructure
on housing estates where roads, sewerage and water supply facilities have badly
deteriorated.
3.2.3 Employment and the rights of workers
Mauritius has had a good track record where employment creation is concerned. The
export-oriented industrialisation policy adopted through the setting up of the Export
Processing Zone completely solved the unemployment problem. There is now even a
problem of labour shortage in that sector. However there are signs that problems of
unemployment may be emerging again.
Where workers rights are concerned, there are at present 330 trade unions registered with
the Registrar representing about 21% of the active population. ILO provided support to
Government for the drafting of a new bill to replace the Industrial Relations Act (IRA).
The new bill is being circulated and is under consideration.
3.3 GOVERNMENT AND INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATION INTERVENTIONS
3.3.1 Poverty Alleviation Programmes
When the new Government came to power in December 1995, a Marshall Plan for the
Development of Deprived Regions was prepared by a Committee of officials under the
chairmanship of the Financial Secretary. Approximately 60 projects were identified that
covered sewerage, supply of drinking water, upgrading of schools and infrastructural
development. In the 1995/96 Budget, a new item entitled “Contribution pour la lutte
contre l’exclusion “ to be managed by the Trust Fund for Social Integration of Vulnerable
Groups, was created in the Capital Budget under the Prime Minister’s vote with a project
value of Rs 500 million. In the last Budget 1999-2000, the sum of Rs 500 from the
Privatisation Fund has been earmarked for the Trust Fund. Projects under this Fund will
have to reflect new social priorities such as national unity, empowerment, better quality
46
of life, poverty alleviation and the fight against social polarisation. The proposed areas
for assistance of this Trust Fund cover a broad range of vulnerabilities, including poverty,
hunger and malnutrition, mortality and morbidity, social discrimination and exclusion,
disability and family stability.
The UNDP/ILO is funding a projec t on the “Fight against Exclusion in Rodrigues
through Participatory Community Development and the Promotion of Income Generating
Activities”, to cover the period April 1999 to March 2001 with a total Budget of
$430,000. The main objectives of this project are to improve the living and working
conditions of the poor segment of the Rodriguan population and stimulate local economic
development through better participation and commitment
3.3.2 Housing Programmes
The NHDC has already completed the construction of 3146 housing units targeting lower
income groups on seven different sites on the island. The Company has also implemented
a project of 704 apartments for middle- income groups with Belgian assistance. It was
even more difficult to find takers for these units, and the prices had to be lowered. The
Company has also executed a housing project for the very low- income groups with the
construction of 672 housing units on 11 sites. A project of 2,100 housing units, meant for
the lower income groups and scattered over 8 sites throughout the island is about to be
completed. The construction of these low- income houses is being financed by a loan form
the Malaysian Government. A grand total of 7000 units have been built by the NHDC
since its creation 7 years ago.
The Company is planning to commission the construction of some 1000 housing units
every year over the next few years, reserving a proportion of these houses for the poor, in
line with the Government’s stated policy to meet the needs of vulnerable groups. A sum
of Rs 21 million has been earmarked for the rehabilitation of some 4000 housing units of
the NHDC. All these housing projects have tried to incorporate the healthy
“neighbourhood concept” in line with community development principles by providing
comprehensive services such as regular water supply, electricity, sewerage, roads,
parking facilities, waste disposal, telephone, and children’s playgrounds.
3.3.3 Disabilities
In 1988 a Trust Fund for Disabled Persons was set up with the main objective of
providing vocational training to persons with disabilities. Special education to children
with disabilities has up to now been carried out mainly by NGOs with financial assistance
and training provided by Government.
The 1999-2000 Budget voted an allowance of Rs 1000 per month, for parents from lowincome groups (less than Rs 100,000 a year), who have disabled children below the age
of 15. Enterprises employing disabled persons are allowed to claim 200% tax deduction
in respect of the salary costs inc urred by such employment. The National Council for the
Rehabilitation of Disabled persons and the Training and Employment of Disabled
47
Persons Board have been in place for a number of years and work with the collaboration
of a number of NGOs. An increasing number of public buildings now have facilities to
make them accessible to disabled persons. The Government proposes to bring the
necessary amendments to the Building Act with a view to making mandatory provision
for accessibility facilities in all future b uildings.
3.3.4 The Ilois Community
The Ilois Community, displaced from Diego Archipelago at the time when Mauritius was
to become Independent, continues to experience poverty and marginalisation in spite of
the various material and social support programmes to facilitate their integration into the
Island of Mauritius. In the 1998/99 Budget, the Minister of Social Security has
announced the setting up of an Ilois Welfare Fund with the main objective of promoting
the wellbeing of the community and their integration into the wider community. The
Fund has now been set up with funds totalling Rs 500,000.
3.3.5 The Elderly
Mauritius is already facing problems associated with an ageing population. The index of
ageing, namely the number of persons aged 60+ per 100 children aged 0-14 year, which
was 11.9 in 1962 and 32.6 in 1997, is expected to rise to 60.7 in 2017 and 100.6 in
2037 19 . The oldest of the old, defined as those aged 75 years or above are the mostly
rapidly growing group among the elderly. This group constituted 16% of the elderly in
1962, 22% in 1997 and could reach 30% by the year 2037.
Ageing of the population will increase pressure on medical services as well as on the
social security system. The National Pension Fund will have to face a very serious
dilemma because in a few years to come, the disbursement for pensions will outstrip
contributions. The government has set up a special Committee to look into this problem
and to study all the implications of this trend and to come up with recommendations.
Care of the elderly by the family is becoming problematic with the large number of
women entering the labour force. A senior Citizen Council has been set up to look over
the general welfare of the elderly. Senior citizens throughout the island are grouped in
Associations that operate under the Council and obtain assistance from it. With the
assistance of the Chinese Government, the Ministry of Social Security has just completed
the construction of a Recreational Centre at Pointe aux Sables for the elderly with
disabilities. The Trust Fund for Vulnerable Groups has earmarked for the year
1999/2000, an amount of Rs 300,000 to assist charitable institutions to build or run
homes for the elderly.
3.3.6 Drug Control
According to “The Global Illicit Drug Trends” (1999) published by ODCCP, Mauritius
reported a 0.4 annual prevalence of opiates abuse as a percentage of the population aged
15 and above. Drug abusers also accounted for 25.4% of the prison population, although
48
prison officials have unofficially reported a figure as high as 65%. The percentage of
females among drug abusers in prison from 1992-1997 was 7.5%. Furthermore, 16% of
the total number of AIDS cases reported from 1980 to 1997 are attributed to injecting
drug use. According to figures released by the World Customs Organisation, between
1993 and 1998, 48.7 kg of herbal cannabis and 24.651 kg of heroin were seized by
Mauritian authorities.
Mauritius has not ratified the 1998 UN Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic
Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, one of the 3 main UN Conventions on Drug Control.
Legal assistance was provided to the Government of Mauritius by UNDCP in 1999 to
develop and adopt the appropriate legislation, especially concerning money laundering, in
order for the Government of Mauritius to accede to the 1988 Convention. It is hoped that
the new Dangerous Drug Bill to be discussed in Parliament shortly will contain the
appropriate legislation.
In June 1996, “Les Assises Sociales de la Toxicomanie” 20 was organised by the Ministry
of Social Security and National Solidarity at which a number of suggestions were made
which could provide the basis for an action plan. A National Agency for the Treatment
and Rehabilitation of Substance Abusers (NATRESA) was set up by an Act passed in
1996. However, out of the 28 centres affiliated to NATRESA, less than half are active.
An evaluation of the Treatment Centres was performed by Appavoo and Associates in
1998, however an evaluation of NATRESA itself has not been carried out and is long
overdue.
Although different ministries such as Health, Education and Youth and Sports have
programmes for the education of the population on alcohol and drug abuse, it is felt that
not enough work is being done at a grassroots level to make youth in particular conscious
of the dangers. On the government side, victims of alcohol and drug abuse are sent to the
psychiatric hospital, Brown Sequard, for treatment. This is most inappropriate and calls
for immediate attention. The centre for the rehabilitation of addicts at Vacaos has only
14 beds, so cannot accept many people. There is probably a case to decentralise the
treatment of alcohol and drug addicts.
A closer collaboration between NGOs and the government that leads to a global
evaluation of the problem and to a comprehensive plan of action is called for. Attempts
have been made to carry out some research on drug abuse, namely a study by the
University of Mauritius in 1988-89. However, a number of methodological weaknesses,
both at organisational and delivery level, posed barriers to the exercise. UNDCP has its
“Rapid Situation Assessment and Interventions” methodology which has been fieldtested in a number of studies world-wide and which can be effectively used in Mauritius.
It is a matter of concern that more than 12 years after it was set up, neither the Trust Fund
nor NATRESA has addressed the question of designing and implementing a “Master Plan
for Drug Control”. In April 1999, the UNDCP ROEA Representative held talks with
Government of Mauritius officials. The second mission was undertaken in the wake of
the Administrative Co-ordination Committee (ACC) Sub-Committee on Drug Control
49
decision to “establish thematic groups on drug control at the country level in all priority
countries” and “to facilitate the process of co-ordination, to integrate drug control in other
inter-agency co-ordination groups at the field-level”. Mauritius was selected as one of
the 9 countries to start this exercise on a pilot basis.
UNDP/UNDCP are collaborating to fund the mission of a 3-member Mauritian team to
Australia to study the Drug Court System, due to take place in April 2000. UNDCP has
also provided a Drug Loo to the Mauritian Police to be placed at the airport, in
recognition of the serious trafficking in heroin.
The Mauritian side is of the opinion that substance abuse is a gradual process (tobacco
smoking, alcohol, cannabis, soft drugs and finally hard drugs) and that the exclusive
reference to ‘drugs’ covers only the tip of the iceberg.
3.3.7 Managing Cultural Diversity
The management of cultural diversity becomes a critical factor in maintaining social
cohesion in multiethnic societies like Mauritius. At the same time as there have been
efforts to forge a sense of national identity, the State has adopted policies to promote the
diverse cultural heritage of the nation. The country has for the last few decades adopted a
cultural policy of Unity in Diversity where an attempt is made to construct a national
identity at the same time as cultural diversity is promoted.
The Ministry of Culture, Arts and Leisure has as a mission statement the following: To
foster a balanced and harmonious society through consolidation of existing pluralism,
promotion of creativity and the celebration of cultural values. The Ministry promotes the
celebration and sharing of knowledge of different religious festivals among the whole
population while at the same time promoting the cultural heritage of the different groups
which make up the Mauritian nation.
The recent serious outbreaks of social tension following the death in police custody of a
Rastafarian singer, who was promoting the African cultural heritage of Mauritians of
African origin, which has up to now remained marginal compared to other groups, have
brought up the need to effectively manage cultural diversity while promoting equality of
opportunity among the different socio-economic and cultural groups. Special effort is
being made to support activities contributing to the promotion of the cultural identity of
Mauritians of African origin.
Although as indicated in the section dealing with International Instruments, the UNESCO
Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage has
been signed in 1995, Mauritius has not as yet identified the sites to be included in the
world-wide list. Delay in the identification of such sites will make inevitable the type of
tension which has arisen concerning the use of an important slavery related historical site,
namely Le Morne mountain, for a tourism project. Among activities that UNESCO has
undertaken in Mauritius, is the international meeting on the UNESCO slave route project
which took place in Mauritius in 1998.
50
3.4 OBSTACLES TO SUCCESSFUL FORMULATION AND I MPLEMENTATION OF STRATEGIES AND
POLICIES
3.4.1 Addressing the Problems of Poverty and Exclusion
The problem of poverty and social exclusion was brought to the surface in a rather
dramatic manner in February 1999, when riots broke out in several deprived areas with a
certain degree of ethnic concentration which could have degenerated into a racial conflict
on a national scale.
One of the major difficulties of developing a rational and coherent strategy to address the
problem of poverty and exclusion is the absence of hard data on the problem which
would have provided a basis for the construction of social indicators to measure levels of
poverty. There have been quite a few studies which have been carried out (by Appavoo,21
Bunwaree, 22 Lau Thi Keng23 and others) on the issues of poverty and social exclusion.
However the absence of clear-cut indicators and other tools of measuring poverty proves
to be a major obstacle to the formulation of appropriate policies.
There is no official poverty line in Mauritius. Researchers in this area have devised their
own cut-off points for determining social exclusion levels (Commission Justice et
Paix1994, 24 Social Fabric Study MRC 1999, 25 Access to Social Services Lau Thi Keng
1997,26 Appavoo Associates 1997)27 . There is as yet no agreement as such on where the
cut off point should be. Selected access indicators are quite often of limited value as they
do not capture the various dimensions of the problem even if they provide a benchmark
and a starting point. It would in any case be inappropriate to rely entirely on a purely
quantitative measurement index of poverty and especially of deprivation because of the
multi-dimensional aspects of the phenomenon and the subjective elements it contains.
Studies of poverty and exclusion therefore must combine quantitative and qualitative
methodologies to capture all these different aspects of the problem.
Given the ethnic dimension of the problem, the absence of systematic research and hard
data on poverty and deprivation does not only make policy formulation difficult but also
creates tension between different ethnic groups as a result of necessarily subjective and
selective interpretations of levels of deprivation and poverty among different sections of
the population.
Although Government has shown very strong concern for the problem of poverty and
social exclusion and is deeply committed to engage in remedial action, interventions are
being effected in a piece- meal and top-down manner. For better results, it would be
important to adopt a participatory approach and rope in all the deprived areas into a major
consultative exercise which would provide a more solid basis for a global master plan to
combat exclusion of poverty. There are indeed many different forms of exclusion and
poverty, but given the multi-dimensional and cross-sectoral character of the phenomenon,
it would be necessary to engage all stakeholders into a global programme of action. This
programme of action could go beyond mere remedial action in specific areas to a
51
reformulation of nationa l and regional development strategies which would in the long
run automatically iron out these pockets of poverty and marginalisation. Such a holistic
multi-sectoral approach would benefit all those who are in a deprived situation,
irrespective of ethnic group or locality. Targeting specific groups might be counterproductive in the sense that it might lead to greater tension. It is important to approach
the problem on a regional or local basis.
3.4.2 Housing Problems
The quality of housing has greatly improved with nearly all houses having piped water
and electricity supply. However the demand for housing is growing at a fast rate with the
tendency towards nuclearisation of the family. It is estimated that the country will be
needing an additional number of 2000 houses every year to meet the demand of nuclear
family units for independent housing. It is unlikely that the demand will be met. Some
70,000 people have opened a PEL account and there are at present 22,000 requests for a
house with the NHDC. There is also the problem of the desperately poor who are unable
to fit into any of the presently existing schemes because of their inability to open an
account with the PEL scheme. This new housing programme based on cost recovery and
affordability has not solved the problem of those suffering from extreme deprivation and
who often become squatters with all the consequential problems that results from this.
Availability of land for construction purposes has become a serious problem. The price of
land has been constantly rising and for the past few years the minimum price level per
toise has been Rs 5000. In certain regions of Plaine Wilhems, the price has reached well
over Rs 10,000 per toise. This situation has given rise to land speculation. Many
Mauritians living overseas have also been buying land here, thus contributing to the
escalation in prices. In Rodrigues, most of the land belongs to the State and Rodriguans
are provided with land for housing purposes on a lease basis.
3.5 ANALYSIS OF K EY ISSUES IN SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
3.5.1 Poverty and Social Inequalities
Successive governments have been working towards establishing a Welfare State by
providing job opportunities and safety nets, which have dampened the emergence of
poverty in the absolute sense. Rapid economic growth during the 80s and early 90s has
gone a long way in improving the lot of even the less privileged. Nevertheless, any
growth process has its undesirable effects particularly on the social fabric. Deprivation
in the form of poverty, social exclusion and marginalisation is indeed one of the most
disturbing side effects of rapid economic growth. These social inequalities have wider
implications for economic and political stability, engendering severe consequences for
social cohesion as well as for the long-term growth prospects of the economy.
The people-centred approach considers that standard of living, when appropriately
defined, could provide a global yardstick against which poverty could be measured.
Standard of living-based poverty will have two distinct components: low income and
52
unsatisfied basic needs such as basic education and health. At the World Summit for
Social Development held in Copenhagen in 1995, donors endorsed this dual approach to
poverty, and committed themselves to the goals of eradicating poverty through
concentrating on creation of productive employment opportunities and social integration.
Thus, there are two ways of assessing changes in aggregate well-being: access to income
and access to health, education and other social opportunities. From a policy perspective,
poverty and social exclusion, therefore, can be defined in terms of capability failure. We
can have various indicators to measure capability namely sufficiency, access and
vulnerability. It has been acknowledged that our society must respond more effectively
to the material and spiritual needs of individuals, the needs of their families, and the
communities. Today the use of real national income as an indicator of economic
development is held in disrepute. Sen (1992) 28 asserts that income is not a measure of
capability.
There is no official poverty line in Mauritius. The World Bank defines the absolute
destitute having income less than one Dollar a day. According to World Bank estimates,
in 1992 about 10% of the Mauritian population had incomes of less than Rs 2168 per
month. 29 The Commission Justice et Paix in 1994, 30 however, stated that it was
necessary for a family to earn at least Rs 5,129 per month to enjoy a decent standard of
living. According to a study on poverty carried out by Appavou Associates 31 (see Table
below), the line of poverty was drawn at Rs 3,500 per month. There are standard ways of
determining a cut-off income, but this figure is very close to half median monthly income
(Rs 3,935) in 1996/97 32 . In a slightly different context, Keng (1997)33 provided a
threshold of Rs 2,500 per capita for discovering the extent of social exclusion of
population. This cut-off income level, however, would have to be supplemented by other
social indicators such as access to education and housing.
Determination of poverty and exclusion lines on the basis of a set of selected access
indicators may be of a limited value, as it is difficult to capture various issues related to
human capability and welfare. Nevertheless, they at least provide a benchmark and a
starting point. Information contained in Table 3 shows that incidence of poverty is
disparate, being highest in Rodrigues and followed by the regions of Flacq and Riviere
Du Rempart. We do not kno w the scientific basis of these estimates as the methodology
is not known to us.
It may be interesting to note here that based on the standard of $1 a day (or $370 per
capita in annual income), it was estimated by the World Bank that about 1.3 billion
people (30% of the population) in developing countries live in extreme poverty. In this
perspective, the incidence of extreme poverty should be very low in Mauritius.
Nevertheless, some sections of the population must have accumulated economic
disabilities from previous generations and over a period of time due to lack of an
effective incomes policy and therefore, they are considered socially excluded from the
mainstream.
53
TABLE 3: I NCIDENCE OF POVERTY IN M AURITIUS
Region
Port Louis
Riviere Du Rempart
Pamplemousses
Riviere Noire
Savanne
Grand Port
Flacq
Moka
Plaine Wilhems
Rodrigues
% of poor
households
12.4
27.2
20.1
22.4
18.4
19.1
28.1
19.6
17
36.4
% of poor
individuals
16.54
30.2
22.5
25.2
22.4
21.4
34.0
24.2
20.3
41.5
Source: MRC,1999
Original Source: Appavoo Associates, Mauritius 1997. Poverty in Mauritius
There are some estimates of the status of social exclusion available from surveys and
opinion polls (Keng, 1997).34 It is evident from the table above that 9 to 10% of people
are estimated as excluded on a national basis, using the cut-off revenue of Rs 2,000. The
distribution of exclusion varies from one area to another, being highest in Roche Bois
(20%) followed by Tranquebar. Opinion polls among the respondents confirmed that
these two areas have more residents having problems with two out of three facilities –
housing, education and revenue. The study also shows that different areas differ from the
national average for their employment characteristics. The incidence of manual semiskilled workers is found to be higher in Roche Bois and Tranquebar but the number of
manual non-skilled is higher in Bambous.
Rodrigues has special problems, as shown from the figures in the above table. The level
of economic development has not been similar to the high growth rates recorded in the
island of Mauritius in the last few decades. The island finds itself completely outside the
‘great leap forward’ experienced by the island of Mauritius, in the 1980s with the
successful period of industrialisation that the country has known. The average household
income and education are much lower and unemployment rate much higher than in the
island of Mauritius. The other sections of the report deal with sectoral issues in
Rodrigues.
The above analysis amply demonstrates that there are economic and social disparities
across individuals, groups and regions. Thus, there is a need to analyse ways and means
to increase the revenue of the poor and to meet more of their basic needs. Targeting of
individuals can be a better approach rather than designating areas and groups for financial
interventions by governments, donors and NGOs. UNCDF (1997)35 makes a distinction
between entrepreneurial poor and non-entrepreneurial poor. The first category of
economically weaker individuals do not need assistance for themselves, but they need
help in accessing the resources required to set up some activities, which will eventually
generate income. Credit may be of great value in this case. A sub-set of this class can be
those entrepreneurial poor who need credit as well as capital subsidy. (Pulley, 1989)36
While providing credit to these entrepreneurs, it may be necessary to mix grants with
54
credit as a pump primer. Grants should take the form of capital subsidy to acquire capital
equipment and technical support and advice.
3.5.2 Deprivation and Social Unrest
The beginning of 1999 was marked by very serious incidents in the capital city of Port
Louis when groups of people from the suburbs of the capital city took to the streets in
protest against the death of a singer who was found dead while in police detention, after
having been arrested for smoking marijuana at a concert. The unrest spread to other parts
of the island and degenerated into collective rioting, attacks on property and looting of
stores and supermarkets. During the riots wild rumours about persons from one group
attacking the places of worship of the other group nearly led to a communal war on a
scale Mauritius had not experienced since Independence. Houses of poor, defenceless
people of specific groups living in isolated rural places were attacked by gangs as a
measure of retaliation to the attack on property which had occurred in some towns. But
fortunately the tension subsided after a few days and the country returned to a period of
relative calm. Mauritians were very shocked and worried by these events and had thought
that the country had progressed past such outbreaks.
The country has for the preceding couple of decades, been presented as a model of
economic success within the framework of remarkable social cohesion and inter-ethnic
harmony and a vibrant political democracy. The February 1999 events exploded this
myth rather brutally although many continue to say that these events were isolated and
related to a specific event and do not indicate any decisive change in the relatively stable
characteristics of the social fabric of Mauritian society. Others are less optimistic and
believe that this is the inevitable outcome of growing inequalities between the affluent
and the poor especially those of the suburban regions who experience the contrast
between affluence and poverty much more sharply than their counterparts in rural
regions, where poverty and exclusion are not necessarily synonymous.
Successful industrialisation at national level does not seem to have benefited all groups to
the same extent. Although it is without a doubt true that the impressive array of social
services has been largely successful in preventing any measure of grinding poverty in the
country, some of these services have perhaps not been implemented in such a way as to
maximise benefits to the most needy. Although access to education and health and other
services are free, there are deep-rooted reasons why some people from deprived or
marginalised groups do not make maximum use of these services and facilities in the
same way that other groups have. More in depth studies should be carried out to measure
the effectiveness of social programmes and their implementation in some of these
deprived areas and the reasons why part of the population seem unable or unwilling to
benefit from them.
The phenomenon of growing poverty and the feeling of social exclusion in low income
housing estates (cites ouvrieres), where there are high concentrations of Creoles, had
been a subject of concern since the end of the 1980s but no one could have predicted the
outbreak of violence which occurred in early 1999. This episode brought up numerous
55
sensitive issues related to glaring socio-economic inequalities and the issue of “social
exclusion” among the Creole community, which has become a highly controversial one
for different reasons in different groups. The term exclusion itself has been under attack
on the grounds that it might operate as a self- fulfilling prophecy among those whose
exclusion may be much more of a subjective perception than an objective reality.
Official statistics are not disaggregated on an ethnic basis and it is therefore very difficult
to measure poverty levels in different ethnic groups. But it is generally agreed that the
problem of poverty and its usual and inevitable consequences on educational
performance and occupational chances is more acute in some suburban regions of the
island where there is an ethnic concentration of Creoles. However, this does not mean
that similar problems do not exist among other ethnic groups in other parts of the island
where there is a concentration of Hindus, as shown in table in the earlier section
(Appavoo Associates).37 In addition, the problem of the cites is compounded by the fact
that there is high ethnic concentration of a single low- income group over a small land
area, with high levels of overcrowding in a suburban setting very frequently on the
periphery of urban centres where luxury housing and commercial developments are being
established. Moreover, the cites have remained locked in rather overcrowded and
insalubrious physical infra-structural conditions, and have become a breeding ground for
alcoholism, drugs, domestic violence, petty thefts and criminal activities and prostitution.
It is also important to realise the multi-dimensional aspects of social exclusion, which are
not limited to low- income levels and material poverty but also to the subjective
experience of prejudice and discrimination in the labour market and in access to
educational facilities, both in the State and private sectors. There is also a strong feeling
among Creoles, that their cultural heritage has been ignored and marginalised compared
to other sections of the population. Although they constitute about 30% of the population,
Creoles are very largely under-represented in the public sector, especially at higher levels
of responsibility, the major obstacle being low educational achievement.
The feeling of exclusion is also experienced at the level of political representation and
meaningful participation in the affairs of the country at regional and national levels. It is
also sometimes very painfully experienced at the level of control agencies such as the
police and school teachers. The attitude of teachers and police officers towards the
deprived groups at the community level, has not only not contributed to harmony and
cohesion but may have in some cases, worsened relationships between different groups.
The role of these two extremely important agents of community control should be closely
examined and properly equipped so that they could become extremely useful stabilising
and motivating forces, with immense potential for social transformation in difficult
deprived areas.
Since the February events, there have been several cases of social tension and unrest
provoked by an array of different and unconnected incidents, such as fatal road accidents,
the death of a whole family in a gaming house allegedly set on fire by football fans after a
match, and tyres being burnt and a main road blocked in an area where inhabitants felt
that the rationing of the water supply during this severe drought was being effected
unfairly. It should however be noted that persons of all ethnic groups and different walks
56
of life, have been involved in the outbreaks of tension mentioned above and it would be
wrong to subsume all these unconnected events under the single problem of the ‘creole
malaise’. The role and weight of socio-economic deprivation in the February 1999 events
continue to be a subject of debate and controversy. It is important that these incidents be
analysed and monitored very closely in order to identify their deep underlying causes.
These events have however rightly triggered very deep concern at all levels, government,
the Catholic Church, the private sector and civil society on issues of deprivation in
certain regions which could easily become breeding grounds for social unrest. A number
of poverty alleviation and related support programmes have either been newly introduced
or existing ones stepped up in those regions.
There have also been a few sporadic outbreaks of tension in Rodrigues which should be
studied and closely monitored.
3.5.3 Discrimination in the Employment Market
Equality of access to education and employment is one of the major potential root causes
of tension in a country where there has been up to now, a fairly strong level of ethnic
concentration in some sectors of the employment market. There is no data on the level of
concentration as official statistics are not disaggregated on an ethnic basis. Public and
private sector jobs and certain advanced technology opportunities in the industrial sector
require high level qualifications and training and therefore exclude large numbers and
groups of people who are, for a number of reasons, low educational achievers. This will
become a more serious problem with the gradual disappearance of traditional manual
occupations such as labourers, dock workers and cabinet makers, and their gradual
replacement by occupations requiring higher basic educational qualifications.
Several political parties are demanding that an Equal Opportunity Bill be introduced in
Parliament. It should be noted that attempts to introduce an ‘Agence Nationale de
l’Emploi’ in the early 1980s with a view to controlling recruitment policies and practices
and ensuring greater meritocracy in the private sector, were resisted by both private
sector interests and Government on the grounds of its complex legal implications.
3.5.4 Gender and Poverty
In a male-dominated society, women seem to carry a greater share of the burden of
poverty than men. In deprived areas, there is a significant proportion of women who
have either been abandoned by their husbands or have to bear the ‘tyranny’ or brutality of
an alcoholic husband, whose pay-packet never reaches home at the end of the month.
Women often have to resort to multiple jobs or to severe cuts in expenditure as survival
strategies. In the worst cases, lack of employment opportunities drive a small proportion
of these women, especially young single mothers, to commercial sexual activities.
Young single mothers or abandoned wives can no longer rely on the support of the
extended family, to the exte nt that they could a few decades ago. Therefore, they are
inevitably drawn into situations of unhealthy dependence on temporary relationships with
male partners, not interested in long term relationships with them.
57
3.6 K EY AREAS OF POSSIBLE INTERVENTION
1. There is an urgent need for more in depth studies of deprived areas using both
quantitative and qualitative techniques which would not only capture the
immediate causes of problems but would go into their underlying structural and
cross-sectoral dimensions. Findings of these studies could be used for the
development of appropriate global policies to address the problem of poverty and
social exclusion.
2. A multi- pronged approach must be adopted to deal with the problems of deprived
regions because of the multi-faceted dimension of the problem. Those who feel
deprived and excluded generally suffer from the following problems: lack of
employment opportunities, low education achievement, low self-esteem, poor
health, poor housing conditions, absence of any property ownership, brittle
families, weak community support systems, no networks and no contacts with
persons in positions of responsibility and therefore much less access to
information about economic opportunities.
3. There should be a comprehensive evaluation of existing poverty alleviation
programmes with a view to improving their efficiency and coordination.
4. There is a need to pursue a programme of social housing for low- income groups
and to improve the physical infrastructure of certain existing housing estates.
5. A shelter programme for the poorest of the poor, the abandoned and the homeless,
should be devised.
6. Short entrepreneurship training programmes and micro-credit schemes for the
young and for women in deprived areas could help the unemployed to develop
new and more sustainable livelihood strategies.
7. There is a large NGO sector dealing with different aspects of social development.
The numerous associations which are registered at present function with widely
varying degrees of efficiency, but they nevertheless reflect a high level of
awareness and commitment to issues of social vulnerability. There seems
however to be a lack of co-ordination between them. They also suffer from a
serious scarcity of material support and professional training at the level of their
field workers. There is an urgent need to empower the NGO sector with some
degree of professionalism in social work skills and techniques of community
work to be able to cope with newly emerging issues. This empowerment would
also help them to go beyond their narrow concerns and interests and adopt a more
holistic approach to social problems.
8. More community development schemes and programmes involving young people,
especially school dropouts in deprived areas, should be introduced.
9. There should be more organised leisure activities, such as sports, artistic and
cultural development schemes in deprived areas.
10. Carry out a study to determine the seriousness of the drug abuse problem in
Mauritius and to make recommendations for future action
11. Set up an Inter-Ministerial Committee on drug control
12. Elaborate a Master Plan for Drug Control for approval by Parliament
13. Assist and strengthen both governmental institutions and NGOs to deal with
prevention of drug abuse, treatment and rehabilitation of drug abusers
58
14. Provide NGOs with financial assistance to carry out specific drug control
activities
15. For the Government of Mauritius to ratify the 1988 Convention Against Illicit
Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances
16. For the Judiciary, Police, Customs, and Immigration services to receive specific
training to increase their effectiveness in dealing with drug control
17. More support for disabled children and their families. Special schools, which are
at present mostly located in urban areas, should be decent ralised. Thought should
be given to the possibility of opening special units in regular schools.
59
4.0 CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS
4.1 INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS
The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) was adopted by the
General Assembly by its resolution 2200 A (XXI) of 16 December 1966. The ICCPR
which entered into force in March 1976 had been ratified and acceded to by 132 States,
including Mauritius three months later.
In addition to the right of self-determination and the right to equality and freedom from
discrimination, this covenant sets out the right to life; the right to freedom from torture
and slavery; the right to liberty and security of persons; the right to freedom of movement
and residence; the right to equal protection of laws; the right to privacy; the right to
freedom of thought, conscience and religion; the right to freedom of expression; the right
to freedom of assembly and association; and the right to take part in the conduct of public
affairs. This covenant has two optional protocols (the first one allowing for the bringing
of individual complaints and the second one aiming at the abolition of the death penalty).
Mauritius is one of the 85 States which has become party to the first protocol enabling
the Human Rights Committee to receive and consider individual complaints. The second
one relating to the death penalty has not been ratified or acceded to by Mauritius,
although the death penalty has been removed from the law.
4.2 GOVERNMENT S TRATEGIES AND POLICIES
4.2.1 Human Rights Provisions in the Constitution
The Independence Constitution of 1968 is the Supreme Law of Mauritius, that is any law
that is passed by Parliament but is inconsistent with any clause of the Constitution is null
and void. It provides a framework for the laws and the legal protection of human rights.
Chapter II of the constitution guarantees a variety of Fundamental Rights and Freedom of
the Individual drawn from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and in some cases
replicating the wording of the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental
Freedoms. The specific rights guaranteed in this Chapter include the following:
the right to life, the right to personal liberty, protection from slavery and
forced labour, protection from inhuman treatment, protection from deprivation
of property, protection for privacy of home and other property, freedom of
conscience, freedom of expression, freedom of assembly and association,
freedom to establish schools, freedom of movement (with certain restrictions
as in any other democratic country), protection from discrimination on the
grounds of race, caste and place of origin, political opinions, colour or creed.
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The Constitution does not embody the broad range of civil and political rights found in
the Universal Declaration, the European Convention, or the Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights. The following rights are absent from the basic rights or freedoms
guaranteed by the Constitution of Mauritius.
•
•
•
•
•
Right to recognition
Right to effective remedy
Right to asylum
Right to nationality
Right to marry and form a family
There are derogations from the basic freedoms for prescribed public interest purposes
unless the legal restriction in question is shown “not to be reasonably justifiable in a
democratic society”. The legal restriction is usually allowed in the interest of defence,
public safety, public order, public morality, public health, for the purpose of protecting
the rights or freedoms of other persons. The most obvious derogation is the case of a
person who loses his right to personal liberty if he is sent to prison by a court of law for
having committed a criminal offence. There are provisions in the Constitution for further
derogations during a period of public emergency. In 1986, Section 8 of the Constitution
was amended to make it explicit that the court is authorised to confiscate the ill- gotten
wealth of convicted drug traffickers.
4.2.2 Reform of the Judiciary
There have been important developments in the context of the Judiciary. A Commission
was set up, to look into the reforms of the Judiciary with a view to rationalising and
removing anomalies in the interest of the rapid and efficient administration of justice. The
Commission, presided over by Lord Mackay38 has now submitted its report with a
number of recommendations (listed below) which are being implemented either through
legislation or administration procedures. Government benefited from UNDP support in
this exercise.
1. The need for the establishment of other redress mechanisms than the Supreme
Court, such as strengthening the role of Ombudsman or establishing an
independent National Human Rights Commission.
2. From the perspective of human rights, the Commission found it of utmost
importance that the case for or against retention of Privy Council appeals be
addressed and debated.
3. It would be most desirable to have one National Human Rights Commission
possibly with several advisory Bodies or Committees devoted to women’s rights,
Children’s rights, non-discrimination and equal opportunity and other particularly
important issues. One of the provisions of the Protection of Human Rights Act of
1998 is the setting up of the National Human Rights Commission.
4. The establishment of a Police Complaints Bureau to address the use of excessive
force by the police in carrying out their mandate.
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5. The issues of prisoner’s rights and human rights in the prison administration
system need to be carefully examined with a view to effecting improvement in the
existing prison service.
6. The establishment of a National Committee for Human Rights Education by the
50th Anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1998).
4.2.3 Local Government Reforms
The Sooben Commission, 39 set up to make recommendations for reforms at the level of
local government, has just submitted its report. Some of its main recommendations are
the conversion of a number of large villages into municipalities, and the mode of
functioning of the four district councils to be like that of the municipalities.
The Commission has also recommended the creation of a Rodrigues Island Council
whose members will be elected instead of nominated as they are at present. Although
this proposal appears to have obtained the consensus of all parties concerned, there is
apprehension that, given that a large majority of educated Rodriguans are civil servants
and are unable to participate in elections, under existing legislation, very few suitable
persons will be eligible to participate in those elections. Although the same regulation
applies in Mauritius, the situation is less problematic with the large pool of persons from
liberal professions or in the private sector who are able to engage in active politics. In
general the report seems to have received some adverse comments because it has not
addressed crucial issues of decentralisation of local government administration which
remains a sensitive issue.
4.3 GOVERNMENT INTERVENTIONS
4.3.1 Legal Amendments to consolidate Good Governance
There has been in the last few years an important rise in the level of conscientisation over
certain important human rights issues reflected in the following decisions taken:
1. Revocation in 1994 of the POA (Public Order Act) and its replacement by the
PGA (Public Gathering Act). The POA of 1970 was considered to be too
repressive because of the considerable powers it gave to the Commissioner of
Police whose decision was final. The Act was revoked in 1994 and replaced by
the Public Gathering Act which contains provision for recourse to the Supreme
Court to appeal against the decision of the Commissioner of Police. (The newly
introduced and very controversial Public Security Act will be discussed more
fully in a later section.)
2. Amendment of the Newspaper and Periodicals Act in 1990 to remove the
repressive aspects of the amendments brought to the Act in 1984, which it was
felt interfered with the freedom of the Press, mainly through the requirement that
large deposit be made to the authorities before a newspaper or periodical is
published.
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3. Setting up an Anti Corruption Tribunal. Since then the legislation relating to the
setting up the Tribunal has been revoked in 1999 following pressures to replace it
by a more stringent piece of legislation. However the new legislation has not
materialised yet with the result that the anti Corruption Tribunal no longer exists.
Many other amendments to existing laws or new laws relating to women’s and children’s
rights will be dealt with in the directly relevant sections of the report.
Several pieces of legislation related to civil and political rights are currently being drafted
or debated. These are the Equal Opportunities Act, the liberalisation of Broadcasting
Services, the setting up of a Press Council, the reform of electoral procedures, and the
Public Security Bill.
4.3.2 Equal Opportunities Act
It is felt that discrimination still persists on a fairly large scale on the grounds of sex and
ethnicity, particularly in the employment sector. The present Government has mentioned
a few times its intention of introducing a Sex Discrimination Act and an Equal
Opportunities Act to ensure that Section 16 of the Constitution guarantees effective
protection against discriminatory practices.
With regard to ethnic discrimination in the labour market, approximately fifteen years
ago, it was suggested that a National Employment Agency be set up with a view to
controlling discriminatory practices in recruitment policies in the private sector where
jobs are not advertised and there is no public accountability as in the public sector.
Through such an agency, there can be recourse to the Supreme Court should a person feel
discriminated against on the basis of his race or ethnicity. The Government decided not to
go ahead with this plan because of its very complex legal implications and strong
resistance from the private sector.
4.3.3 Reform of Electoral Procedures
In 1998, there was a UN needs assessment mission for electoral procedures reform which
was followed by a multi- lateral mission of experts to review the procedures in place. It is
to be noted that Government has not implemented the recommendations of the UNDESA
mission. However, the introduction of transparent ballot boxes has already been
introduced in the same effort to improve electoral procedures.
4.3.4 Public Security Act
Following the riots of February 1999, and the other violent incidents which occurred in
the course of the year, there has been a great deal of pressure from various quarters to
consolidate Law and Order. The recent introduction of the Public Security Act (PSA)
forms part of Government’s efforts to consolidate law and order. This Act, which gives
considerable powers to the Commissioner of Police in matters of Public Security, is
viewed by trade unions and other grassroots organisations as containing serious
63
infringements to basic human rights and they feel it should be withdrawn. It should be
noted that the Act has not yet been promulgated due to numerous appeals to Government
to reconsider some of its provisions.
4.4 OBSTACLES TO I MPLEMENTATION OF STRATEGIES AND POLICIES
Mauritius has had a fairly long and impressive track record with respect to its interest in
and commitment to human rights. As shown in the first section of this chapter, the
country is signatory to most of the international conventions and treaties in this field and
it is committed to further consolidation of democracy and human rights of the individual.
There are also numerous NGOs engaged in the field human rights, such as Amnesty
International (Mauritius Branch), the Indian Ocean Institute for Human Rights, SOS
(Battered Women), Women’s Liberation Movement, Women’s Legal Watch, and The
Comité des Droits Démocratique (CDD). Many trade unions and grassroots organisations
are also active in the field of human rights education and in working for the protection
and further consolidation of human rights.
In the last few decades, Mauritians have generally become much more sensitised to
human rights issues through exposure to workshops and seminars by international
organisations (mainly UN agencies based locally) and other NGOs. The Government has
also shown commitment by introducing a number of amendments to laws to comply with
the international instruments. (mentioned above and in other sections of the report)
However, as is well known all over the world, legislation is not enough to put an end to
human rights violations. There are still numerous cases of such violations, largely
undiscovered, especially where women and children are concerned. Police brutality has
been another source of great concern and will be addressed in more detail in a later
section.
One of the major constraints of implementation so far has been of an organisational
nature, and it is hoped that it will be overcome with the setting up of the Human Rights
Commission. Individuals who have felt that their rights have been violated have not
always had the necessary support to defend their case. NGOs have had limited capacity to
provide such support although there have been quite a few cases, especially with respect
to police brutality, where they have invested enormously into the defence of individuals
whose rights had been violated. The scarcity of lawyers engaged in human rights work
and the low level of engagement of civil society in this field, has also been another
serious constraint. However, there have been some positive signs in the recent past with
a number of lawyers, mainly women, showing interest and commitment in this field.
Another constraint has been the absence of an understanding of the real meaning of good
governance. The holding of elections on a regular basis is a condition sine qua non for
the exercise of democratic rights but is not enough to ensure the full exercise of an
individual’s political rights. The use of electoral bribery on a massive scale and the
absence of control on political party funding can have a very distorting effect on the
64
democratic process. This issue was addressed in the Mission Report on Electoral
Procedures but recommendations have not been implemented so far. There are inevitable
political constraints to any remedial action here as it would affect all the major parties.
Constraints are also of an economic nature. Inevitably the victims of violations, such as
police brutality and electoral bribery, are generally fro m the weaker sections of society in
economic, social and political terms. This precariousness makes them inevitable targets
of police brutality and also easy prey for electoral bribery. The past few decades have
witnessed a systematic decline in commitment to political ideology, and this has had a
very unfortunate impact on the exercise of democratic rights. People are quite happy to
bargain their support against electoral bribes of various forms, ranging from cash to the
promise of a job.
Socio-cultural constraints are more important in the exercise of women’s and children’s
rights. There are still some deeply rooted family traditions which emphasise the
subservience of women and children and continue to resist the idea that women and
children have rights and should be allowed to exercise them. The way that women have
been socialised and the way that the family is organised in most parts of the world has
made it difficult for women to know about their rights and to exercise them fully. The
issues are being discussed in greater detail in later sections of the report. The absence of
systematic and formal human rights education in the school system and of sensitisation
programmes in civil society at large has also been a major constraint.
4.5 CRITICAL D EVELOPMENT GAPS
4.5.1 Parliamentary Democracy
Over the past two decades, there has been considerable dissatisfaction with and
questioning of the present electoral system based on the “first past the post” principle. It
is possible for political parties to obtain a fair percentage of votes at the national level, up
to 30% in 1982, and not to elect a single member of the Assembly. Since 1982, there
have been five general elections in 1982, 1983, 1987, 1991 and 1995. In 1982 and 1995
the alliance of parties that formed the government elected all their candidates in all the
constituencies as a result of which there was no opposition in Parliament except for the
four nominated best losers which all had to come from opposition parties. The absence of
an elected opposition in Parliament makes a mockery of the democratic process with a
situation where 30% or more of the electorate who voted for the opposition may end up
having no representative at all in Parliament.
The two factors responsible for this state of affairs are the “first past the post” system and
the system of pre-electoral coalitions between the major parties, giving very little chance
to smaller parties to emerge and present themselves a potential alternatives. The issue of
funding also poses a disproportionate disadvantage for smaller parties which are not
regarded by party funders as having any chance of being represented in Parliament.
There have been persisting demands for reform of the electoral system with some form of
proportional representatio n, which would allow parties to elect some of their members on
65
the basis of the percentage of votes obtained at the national level. This would ensure that
there is an effective opposition in Parliament. Although there is general consensus that a
new system must be worked out, there is apprehension of the impact that proportional
representation could have on interethnic relations. Extreme care will have to be taken
with regard to this factor in the formulation of any new electoral system.
There are already special provisions in the electoral system to safeguard the rights of
minorities in elections. The best loser system provides for the nomination of 8 additional
members to be nominated to Parliament from the list of losers with the highest score
belonging to communities that are under represented in the first list of elected members.
Opinions are strongly divided on this issue; some people feel that the best loser system
may be preventing a move away from ethnic politics, while for others, any dismantle ment
of the present system would lead to more serious ethnic tensions. It should be noted here
that the calculations being made for determining best losers is being done on the basis of
the 1972 elections, given that in all the censuses after 1972, there is no question on ethnic
appurtenance.
A consensus seems to have been reached among all political parties about the need to
introduce a quota to ensure a higher level of women’s participation in national and local
elections.
4.5.2 Local Government
Local government funding and administration is of critical importance in the Mauritian
situation not only in terms of the consolidation of democratic principles but also in terms
of ethnic distribution and sharing of power. The geographical dispersal of ethnic groups
has for historical reasons led to a concentration of Hindus and Muslims in rural regions
and Creoles in urban regions. Municipal Councils have very limited powers to generate
funds and therefore become largely dependent on Central Government. The relationship
between Central Government and local administration at the Municipal level has often
been tinted with ethnic undertones. The issue of regional administration in the island of
Rodrigues has also been the subject of similar tensions and is an issue which still needs to
be resolved. Rodriguans have been asking for greater autonomy. The wide economic and
social disparities between the two islands for a long time have nurtured considerable
mistrust, bordering on hostility towards Mauritians.
Village and district councils are in an even worse situation as they cannot generate any
funds at all through the rural tax which all successive governments have talked about but
not implemented for fear of loss of rural support. At the level of village councils the
problem of decentralisation of power is perhaps even more acute, as they receive annual
grants from Central Government which hardly allows them the possibility of engaging in
important development projects at a local level. At this level the concern is much less
connected with the issues of ethnic sharing of power but is still very much related to the
issue of low levels of participatory democracy and resulting uneven development.
66
4.5.3 The Press
Mauritius has a very vibrant Press which has existed for 225 years. It enjoys the legal
freedom of a normal democratic society and there are different categories of newspapers
generally classified as pro- government, pro-opposition, independent, representing a
particular religious group, or specialising in a particular topic or interest. The language
used by the Press is generally French.
For the past few years there have been discussions about the necessity to set up a Press
Council with the main objectives of maintaining ethical standards in journalism as well as
protecting the independence of the journalist. However, no consensus seems to have
been reached by the body of journalists, some of whom feel that this may be a ploy on the
part of Government to control the Press. The relationship between the government of the
day and the Press is not always an easy one, the Press seeing itself as having the role of
watch-dog or even that of a “contre-pouvoir”. For historical reasons the local press has
been largely controlled by the General Population, most probably because of that
community’s relative ease with the French language. A Freedom of Information Act was
mentioned in the present Government’s programme but has not been introduced yet.
The Internet has become quite an important source of information and entertainment.
Facilities are continuously being upgraded and some 6000 families and many schools are
connected through the Mauritius Telecom services.
4.5.4 The Liberalisation of Broadcasting Services
The issue of liberalisation has been hotly debated for a number of years and although
general consensus seems to have been reached that broadcasting services should be
liberalised, the MBC continues to maintain its monopoly on radio broadcasting. The
considerable delay that there has been for the introduction of this piece of legislation
seems to indicate that there might still be some political hesitation to bring about these
changes in the broadcasting sector.
Broadcasting services although managed by a public corporation is still very much under
government control. The public perception of the MBC is that it is at the service of the
Government of the day, in spite of the fact that according to the MBC Act, the national
broadcasting service should be independent. The re-broadcasting of TV channels
obtained by satellite by private enterprises has now been permitted as a result of a court
action. The intention announced by the new Government elected in 1995 to further
liberalise broadcasting services and to set up an Independent Broadcasting Authority has
not materialised yet.
4.5.5 Public Administration
The need for reform in public administration has been strongly felt for the last few
decades as the country becomes even more absorbed in the global market-oriented
economy. There was an increasing realisation that the civil service would need to be
67
transformed into an enterprise- friendly public administration to meet the challenges of
globalisation and sustainable development. In an era where accountability and quality
assurance will become conditions sine qua non for the regular evaluation of the
functioning of any organisation, there is need to completely rethink the organisation of
the public service.
The public service is often viewed as being less efficient than the private sector which is
run on commercial principles of output efficiency. As the public sector deals largely with
services, other yardsticks of efficiency must be used. Given the difference in the nature
of the output between these two sectors, it is difficult to ascertain to what extent security
of employment in the public sector has contributed to waste and inefficiency. However,
under the pressure of public dissatisfaction and international funding agencies, both
central and local administration have started to subcontract an increasing number of
services, such as maintenance services, security, refuse collection etc. Many government
departments have been turned into public companies run on commercial lines and modern
management principles, to reduce the load of bureaucratic constraints and inefficiency.
There is a general consensus that the system must be reviewed and the sector reorganised
for even greater efficiency. One of the major problems has been at the level of
recruitment policies. There is at present no proper aptitude testing to measure the
person’s real suitability for a job. Another problem is also the lack of proper monitoring
or rather ‘mentoring’ from superiors when a young person joins the service. There should
be a training period for all categories of new recruits. Another problem has been the
absence of a well defined continuous training strategy at all stages of the civil servant’s
career in the service.
The relationship between the government of the day and civil servants also needs to be
closely studied. There have been quite a few cases where civil servants have had to carry
the burden of responsibility for actions performed under the directives of Ministers. Civil
servants must be trained and properly equipped to deal with such situations.
An important report has recently been submitted to Government on civil service reform
and contains a number of recommendations which still remains to be implemented (The
Burrenchobay Report).40 One of the issues which needs to be seriously addressed is the
non- implementation of recommendations contained in reports and ways of getting
involved in policy advocacy to encourage implementation especially on very important
and critical issues. The UN system could assist Government to overcome some of the
constraints and obstacles to non-implementation.
4.5.6 Law and Order
Apart from the riots of February 1999, the rise in criminality has led to a certain feeling
of insecurity in the population about the situation of law and order and the efficiency of
the Police Force. There is worry not only about the growing incidence of crimes but also
the nature of these crimes which seem to be getting more violent and in some ways more
professional, frequently with the support of fire arms. There have been several incidents
68
of tourist attacks, some of which have been covered in the international media. This is a
source of great concern for tourist operators. One of the country’s greatest assets was that
it had been for a long time one of the most secure tourist destinations of the world.
The Government has taken some important measures to reorganise the police force where
training is being given paramount importance. The University of Mauritius in
collaboration with Portsmouth University of the UK is at present running a BSc course in
Police Studies for police officers.
There have been numerous complaints of police brutality especially towards persons
detained in police cells. Enquiries have uncovered some disturbing factors in a few cases.
Special attention must be given to the role of the police in deprived areas. Officers posted
in such areas must be given the right support and be equipped with the necessary training
to understand the local community and deal with them more efficiently. The incidents
which occurred last year had very powerful ethnic and racial undercurrents and could
have ignited the country in a matter of hours. It is important therefore that the grass-root
administration of law and order be seen to be free of any socio-ethnic bias.
The administration of prisons has to be reviewed in the light of the very serious incidents
that have been occurring recently. The most recent incident was a firearm attack on a
prison officer just outside the prison. There are reports of some major problems in
prisons, such as inadequate capacity for the prison population, homosexuality, material
conditions of imprisonment, inadequate social and professional rehabilitation. The socioethnic distribution of the prison population is a cause of concern. Almost three-quarters
of the prison population come from the most depressed suburban areas where there is a
heavy ethnic concentration of two minority groups, namely Creoles and Muslims. The
high rate of recidivism in prison communities has a tendency to lock prisoners in this
vicious circle of criminality and tends to perpetuate a crime culture among certain groups.
This can have very damaging effects on inter-ethnic relationships. Greater effort should
be made to run more effective social and professional rehabilitation programmes.
One of the most important Government response to the problem of law and order has
been the introduction of the Public Security Act which is a causing much controversy as
explained in Section 4.3.4 above.
Lord Mackay41 has proposed the establishment of a Police Complaints Bureau to address
the use of excessive force by the police in carrying out their mandate. This measure is
currently being implemented.
4.5.7 The Judiciary
There has been a considerable increase in peoples’ awareness of their rights and
privileges over the last few decades leading to a dramatic increase in demand for judicial
services which have not expanded at the same rate. There is as a result considerable delay
in judicial processes. One of the measures proposed some years ago, which wo uld have
reduced the pressure is the setting up of a Family Court that will have jurisdiction over
69
three broad areas, namely (a) matters currently dealt with by the Supreme Court such as
divorce and separation (b) issues currently covered by the Juvenile Offences Act (c) cases
ranging from battered wives, abused children, and simple family property disputes. More
recently some of these issues have been dealt with in the Mackay report42 and
recommendations made were not on the same lines as the previous ones. There is a need
to take stock of all the various recommendations made and agree on the most appropriate
ones so that the implementation process can be speeded up.
In spite of high literacy levels of Mauritians, legal literacy is rather low, even among the
educated. It is important that simplified versions of laws, such as those relating to
marriage and the family and to workers rights, be popularised and made easily accessible
for the public at large.
4.6 K EY ISSUES TO BE ADDRESSED
The problem of non- implementation of recommendations from reports is sensitive in the
area of civil and political rights but nonetheless needs to be addressed. Part of the
constraint could be political but much of it could be of a practical nature, namely scarcity
of appropriately trained human resources or could result from absence of information or
lack of appropriate advocacy work to overcome resistance from certain quarters.
The following key issues have been identified as requiring urgent attention:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Assistance in re-examining the implications of the Public Security Act
Setting up of the National Human Rights Commission
Support for possible reforms of the electoral system to consolidate democracy
Support to decentralisation of local government
Assistance in the formulation and operation of an Equal Opportunities Act
Reform and modernisation of public administration and prison services
Strengthening the Police Complaints Bureau
Stepping up of training and support services for the Police to operate more
effectively
9. Setting up of a Press Council
10. Liberalisation of broadcasting services
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5.0 HEALTH, POPULATION AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
5.1 GLOBAL CONFERENCES
None of the UN Global Conferences dealt exclusively with issues of health. However a
number of them, especially the International Conference on Population and Development
in Cairo, in 1994 covered mainly health issues. Many health issues were also covered by
various Conferences on Women and the World Summit for Children upon which the
CRC was developed.
The International Conference on Population and Development, held in Cairo in 1994,
dealt extensively with reproductive health and also showed the population issue in a
much wider perspective in terms of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing of all
parties, roping in gender issues, child’s rights, the environment etc. Most of these issues
are examined in the section on women.
The Conference stressed that the aim of family planning programmes must be to enable
couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number and spacing of their
children, and to have the information and means to do so and to ensure informed choices
and make available the full range of safe and effective methods. Regarding the
reproductive health care issue, the major recommendations included:
•
•
•
•
•
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All countries should strive to make accessible through the primary health-care
system, reproductive health to all individuals of appropriate ages as soon as possible
and not later than the year 2015.
Reproductive health care in the context of primary health care should, inter alia
include: family planning and services for prenatal care, safe delivery and post natal
care; breast feeding counselling, information, education, communication and services.
Areas covered should include education; prevention and appropriate treatment of
infertility; abortion, including prevention of abortion and the management of the
consequences of abortion; treatment of reproductive tract infections; education about
and treatment of sexually transmitted diseases; information, education and
counselling on human sexuality, reproductive health and responsible parenthood.
Reproductive health-care programmes should be designed to serve the needs of
women, including adolescents and must involve women in the leadership, planning,
decision-making, management, implementation, organisation and evaluation of
services. Governments and other organisations should take positive steps to include
women at all levels of the health-care system.
Innovative programmes must be developed to make information, counselling and
services for reproductive health accessible to adolescents and adult men. Such
programmes must both educate and enable men to share more equally in family
planning and in domestic and child-rearing responsibilities and to accept the major
responsibility for the prevention of sexually transmitted diseases.
The issue of family planning goes far beyond concerns limited to the mere control of the
population. Although the main target group in the field of reproductive health consists
firstly of women of childbearing age, it covers much broader areas such as the well being
of all members of the family. All human beings at different periods of their lives are
potentially concerned by a reproductive health problem.
5.1.1 Rights versus Needs Approach in Health
The Rights approach as opposed to the needs approach emphasises the right to
reproductive health information and services with a view to reducing mortality and
reliance on unsafe abortion. This includes the right of access to services and to
information and counselling so that the individual is able to make an informed decision
on the basis of all available information.
This new approach also emphasises that the right to information and counselling about
family planning methods and services should be extended to adolescents and youth and
the unmarried whose right to equal treatment also implies the same rights as adults to
complete confidentiality in the areas of reproductive health care.
The Rights approach is sometimes contained in legislation but its implementation is not
as easy given certain societal barriers or institutional constraints. It is important to
evaluate from time to time the correspondence between provisions of the law and the
actual exercise of certain rights.
5.2 G ENERAL H EALTH POLICIES AND STRATEGIES
Mauritius has had a free health service within the broad framework of the Welfare State
which was introduced in the 1950s. The long-term sustainability of the ‘welfare state
model’ is becoming problematic as pressure increases on the various health services and
demand grows for high-tech medicine. A study on the financial sustainability of the
public health sector, more specifically on the development of a Health Insurance Scheme
for the country, was carried out in 1996 to review alternative financing mechanisms in
Mauritius. There is no established mechanism for rational distribution and allocation of
resources in the health sector which has expanded in a piece meal manner in response to
specific problems as they arose. An integrated approach would have ensured greater
equity in the distribution of services. The emphasis has moved away from primary health
care to hi-tech services with the increasing incidence of non-communicable diseases such
as cardiovascular problems.
In an effort to reduce the pressure on general hospitals, Government adopted a policy of
decentralisation of health services through the setting up of primary health care centres
all over the country. Unfortunately, there is systematic bypassing of primary health care
centres which is a major impediment to the overall functioning of the health care system.
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5.2.1 Reproductive Health Policies
An important landmark in the field of reproductive health policies dates back to the
setting up of the Herchenroder Commission in 1953 to look into health issues at the time.
The Report’s main recommendations were to improve the social position of the people,
improve the status of women, restrict early marriage, provide better health care,
encourage emigration, seek international assistance for family planning and set up
integrated family planning services.
The major part of the ICPD objectives have more or less been achieved and in some cases
Mauritius may have even gone beyond the conference goals. There is no explicit
document on national population policy, however since the 1960s, Government has been
strongly committed to family planning. Government policies and measures taken in this
field have since then succeeded in averting the Malthusian nightmare scenario which was
building up in the 1960s, with a 3% growth rate of the population. Family Planning
services were introduced by the Mauritius Family Planning Association (MFPA), a nongovernmental organisation, supported by the IPPF and joined later in 1963, by a Catholic
Organisation, Action Familiale, engaged in the promotion of natural methods. Family
planning services were gradually transferred to the Ministry of Health in the 1970s, with
the help of UNFPA. However the MFPA and the Action Familiale continue to operate on
a modest scale and benefit from Government grants.
5.3 OBSTACLES , UNDERLYING CAUSALITIES AND D EVELOPMENT GAPS IN THE H EALTH
SECTOR
5.3.1 Main Health Indicators
It could generally be said that the universality of access to primary health care has been
achieved in Mauritius. The small size of the island and comprehensive transport network,
as well as the decentralisation of services have been the major facilitating factors.
However there are still problem areas, such as the persisting high infant mortality rates
(the IMR has ranged between 18-22 from 1990-1998)43 and the high incidence of low
birth weight babies (less than 2500 grammes). Government hospital records show that the
rate of low birth weight babies has been increasingly consistently as follows: 9.5% in
1991, 13.9% in 1995 and 14.3% in 1998. The target of 5% fixed for the year 1995 would
not have been achieved even in the year 2000. Some incidence of malnutrition and youth
anaemia has been detected by some studies 44 although there is controversy over the
extent of the problem. The SSR Medical Centre of the University of Mauritius has made
public in February 2000, some findings of a study which indicate fairly high levels of
anaemia in the youth population, especially girls. A study carried out by the Ministry of
Health in 1985 45 and 1995 46, indicated much lower incidence although there is agreement
about high levels of anaemia in the Rodriguan population. It is generally felt that
industrialisation, longer working hours, less healthy food habits, sedentary occupations,
and lack of exercise may be having negative effects on the health status of the population,
especially women.
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5.3.2 Recent Population Trends47
The main thrust of the population policy in this decade was to maintain the Gross
Reproduction Rate (GRR) at the replacement level and to bring down by 10% the fertility
rates of women in the age group 15-18, 25-29 and 40 + through intensive population and
family life education and family planning services. Crude birth rate has dropped from
21.3 (per thousand population) in 1990 to 16.7 in 1998.
Mauritius is already facing the problems of an ageing population with the child
dependency ratio decreasing from 470 in 1990 to 366 in 2015 and 363 in 2040 at the
same time as the old age dependency ratio increases from 135 in 1990 to 198 in 2015 and
343 in 2040.
The total fertility rate decreased from 3.05 in 1973 to 2.20 in 1983 and 1.94 in 1986
which is the lowest ever recorded in Mauritius but had increased to 2.12 in 1996 and
decreased again to 1.96 in 1998. The GRR has decreased gradually from 1.16 in 1993 to
0.96, which is below replacement level in 1998.
This dramatic adjustment in fertility was mainly due to the postponement of age of
marriage and use of contraceptive methods. The mean age of marriage for women rose
from 19.8 in 1962 to 23.8 in 1990. There is no doubt that family planning intervention
programmes must have played an important role but there have also been other
underlying factors such as the improvement of health, the educational status of women,
and general economic and social conditions of the population. The entry of women into
the labour force had a very direct effect on the postponement and spacing of births within
marriage. Aggressive domiciliary motivation campaigns on a face-to-face basis carried
out in both rural and urban areas, were also critical factors. This was possible a few
decades ago when women were more accessible. Even those who were employed in the
agricultural sector were accessible for such campaigns after their working hours. The
situation is very different now with the longer working hours of women in industrial
factories and the difficulties of reaching them for information and motivation campaigns.
There is a need for a total review of IEC techniques aimed at working women.
5.3.3 Acceptors and Users of Family Planning
There were 213 family planning service points on the island of Mauritius and 12 in
Rodrigues in 1998. Out of the 213 service points in Mauritius, there were 6 Family
Planning Supply Centres and 61 industrial Family Planning supply centres.48 The
Contraceptive Prevalence Survey conducted in 1985 49 found that 80% of women in
unions between the ages of 15-44 were using a method of contraception. A follow up to
the 1985 CPS was carried out in 1991, 50 and showed that the percentage had dropped to
75% of which 50% relate to modern contraceptive methods. It is a matter of serious
concern that a decrease has been noted in the prevalence of users of contraceptive
methods and this is a problem which should be further investigated so that the causes of
this trend can be identified.
74
The oral pill has remained for a long time the most commonly used method of
contraceptive. However a new trend has been detected in records of agencies, indicating a
shift away from more reliable forms of contraceptives to less reliable ones, such as the
withdrawal and rhythm methods. Among users, it is estimated that the percentage of
those using oral pills has dropped from 10.28% of the estimated female population aged
15-49 in 1990 to 7.33% in 1998, whereas for the rhythm method, the percentage has
increased from 6.96% to 7.92% over that same period. 51 It should be noted that in 1996,
the percentage of those using the rhythm method had exceeded for the first time that of
those using the pill. These estimates should however be treated with caution as the
figures recorded exclude those who buy contraceptives from pharmacies. It may also be
noted that with more women in the labour market, and longer working hours, there has
been a shift away from FP agencies to private pharmacies.
5.3.4 Teenage Pregnancy
Although the age specific fertility rate in the 15-19 age group has increased from a low of
39.60 in 1986 to 45.8 in 1991, it has gone down again gradually to reach 35.3 in 1998.
However about 10% of the total births in Mauritius in 1997 occurred in the age group 1519, far above the figure of 4% which is the normally expected percentage for a country
with a TFR of 2.1. Moreover, 10% of all pregnancies, live births and admissions to
hospitals for complications arising from abortions are for women under the age of 19. 52
5.3.5 Complications at child birth
Normal deliveries in hospitals are nearly always carried out by midwives, and a small
number of normal deliveries and all instrumental and caesarean deliveries are carried out
by doctors. In 1998, the number of deliveries in hospitals represented 84% of all
deliveries in the island. 53 In the private nursing homes, nearly all deliveries are carried
out by doctors. In 1998, deliveries in these homes represented 14.6% of all deliveries.
97% of all deliveries in the island are carried out by qualified personnel either in hospital
or in private homes.
The increase in the incidence of low birth weight babies is causing concern and has been
discussed more fully in the chapter on children. In Rodrigues, in 1998, 85.8% of all
deliveries in the island were carried out in the hospital at Creve Coeur and health centres
at Mont Lubin and La Ferme. 9.1% of the babies were underweight and there were 3
stillbirth cases out of the 597 deliveries. 54 The incidence of low birth weight babies is
much higher in the island of Mauritius than it is in the island of Rodrigues.
5.3.6 Reproductive Tract Neoplasm
There is evidence of an increase in the incidence of breast, cervix and prostrate cancer.
Cases of breast cancer treated in hospitals was 146 in 1996, 171 in 1997 and 177 in 1998.
Deaths due to malignant neoplasm of female breast increased from 22 in 1991 to 50 in
1995 and 61 in 1999. The number of cases treated as in-patients due to malignant
75
neoplasm of the cervix uterus in government hospitals was 99 in 1991, 211 in 1995 and
230 in 1998.
The national cervical cancer-screening programme was launched in January 2000. The
immediate objective is to clear the backlog estimated to be approximately 170,000 cases
over a five year period.
5.3.7 STDs and HIV/AIDS
TABLE 4: R EPORTED CASES OF SYPHILLIS AND GONORRHOEA ( 1995-1999)
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female
Syphilis
45
33
49
27
41
28
20
17
16
13
Gonorrhoea 155
14
243
17
214
25
150
15
134
26
Source: Ministry of Health
As can be seen from above table, there has been a decline in the number of reported cases
of syphilis for both men and women over the last five years. The figures for gonorrhoea
seem to be erratic and it is therefore difficult to detect any definite trend in one way or
another.
The first HIV positive case was detected in 1987 and the cumulative figure reached up to
January 2000 among residents was the following: full blown cases and of HIV Positive
Asymptomatic: 175 (117 males and 58 females) and 46 persons have passed away since
1987. Among non-residents the corresponding figure over the same period is 55 (46
males and 9 females). 55 Over the past five years, all the 25 cases were in the age group
(25-50) for both males and females. Although the number of detected cases have not
reached alarming proportions, there should be no room for complacency as there are
numerous examples of other countries where large numbers of cases had remained hidden
over fairly long periods of time before they could be detected. Two organisations are at
present active in this field, the AIDS Unit of the Ministry of Health and a new NGO
(PILS), both involved in educational and support programmes for those affected and their
families. There are however serious constraints at the level of human and financial
resources. It is believed that the high risk group in the population, namely commercial
sex workers, make very little use of condoms. According to some unpublished sources
only 20% are systematic users of condoms in that group.
There is apprehension that official figures grossly underestimate the real extent of the
problem. Systematic pre-marital and pre-pregnancy testing and easier access to condoms
among the young remain highly sensitive and taboo and should be discussed more freely
and openly.
There has however been marked progress with respect to screening of pregnant women
which is currently being carried out on a voluntary basis. When this was first introduced,
there was fairly strong resistance to testing. However it is estimated that now, almost
90% of pregnant women attending ante natal clinics are screened for HIV.
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5.3.8 Newly emerging Health issues
Factors such as the ageing population, changing life styles, and more women entering the
labour market will all lead to new needs and growing pressure on health services.
Although health statistics show definite improvements in the health status of the
population, the infant mortality and low birth weight rates remain high. There has also
been a dramatic rise in NCDs, namely cardiovascular diseases and diabetes as well as
cancer. Some of these problems could in fact be direct consequences of the rapid
transformation of an agricultural economy to an industrial one in less than a couple of
decades.
This period of rapid economic growth seems to have coincided with decreasing emphasis
on preventive care, community-initiated and community-led health programmes as well
as a general relaxation of effort in the field of health education. Some of the reasons
could be that as more and more people, especially women, entered the labour force and
children got caught up in the infernal spiral of competition at school, there was less time
for and interest in health education and other community based educational programmes.
The revolution in information technology and media could have made easier mass
transmission of information but they have more often been at the service of commercial
interests than of educational ones.
In this context it is important to strengthen community-based primary health centres to
ensure quality health care and encourage a participatory approach to health care. The
overall referral system needs to be reinforced without jeopardising endeavours currently
under way to upgrade Area Health Centres located in the under-served areas into MediClinics (Community Day Care Hospitals).
There is a need to strengthen continuous training programmes for medical and paramedical staff. Continuous Medical Education has already started but should be extended
to all other categories of health professionals.
The organisational structure at the central level, namely the Ministry, has outlived itself
and no longer meets the emerging demands and characteristics of health services
provision. It has to be reengineered along corporate lines with greater transparency,
accountability and effectiveness in policy- making and definition of clear strategic
orientations. The same principles should apply to the management structure at the
peripheral levels especially the regional level where there is a semblance of
decentralisation on paper but this is absent in practice and besides, it is not participatory
leading to de-motivation of staff and operational inefficiency. There has to be a
continuous monitoring and evaluation of the process and appropriate corrective action
taken on the basis of such evaluation as required.
5.4 NEW CHALLENGES IN REPRODUCTIVE H EALTH AND POPULATION
Without a doubt, the programme of birth control over the past 30 years has been a
remarkable success, reflected in the sharp drop in population growth rates to almost
77
replacement level. It should be noted that the high abortion rates must have contributed
substantially to this drastic reduction in birth rate. This means that although the
motivation to have fewer children has become very strong it is not being matched by the
same level of motivation at the level of the use of contraceptive methods. The problem
may be at the level of information and education and/or appropriateness and accessibility
of services. This problem needs to be thoroughly studied being given changing life styles
and earlier exposure to sexual activity among youth.
It is often said that the resounding success of the family planning programmes which
started in the 1950s was due to the fact that women were accessible and could be reached
in their own home environment for face-to-face interactive canvassing sessions. The
situation is now very different with the large numbers of women in industrial worksites
where health education sessions of a sensitive nature such as reproductive health can
prove to be very difficult if not impossible. In fact even the attempts to set up mobile
access clinics for contraceptives on these industrial sites are not proving to be very
efficient.
Health and more specifically sex education becomes even more important as more and
more girls enter the labour force at an earlier age and become exposed to the possibility
of becoming involved with male partners at an earlier age. A Study carried out in 199356
on young unmarried working women in the EPZ and AIDS-related risk behaviour
showed that some girls may not be properly equipped to cope with the new experiences
they are being exposed to in their emotional and sexual lives. The recent arrival of large
numbers of young unmarried women foreign workers in the EPZ sector has further
heightened concern over this issue.
It is important that workers organisations, such as trade unions or workers councils and
the management of different work sectors be sensitised on the importance of health
education campaigns around these serious issues. It is likely that in the future health
education campaigns will have to be conducted on the work site.
Men have also been largely left out of motivation and education programmes resulting in
their lack of interest in the issue. This must be remedied within the overall perspective of
the need to strengthen male parenting roles and to re-engage men into their families.
The absence of sex and family life education in schools has already been raised elsewhere
and this issue needs to be addressed very urgently. There have been a few attemp ts made
at the level of individual schools and associations such as the MFPA to train school
teachers in this field but there is need for national concerted action which is the only way
of achieving any meaningful and sustained result in this very complex area of human
behaviour. Education programmes on sexually transmitted diseases, in particular AIDS,
have been carried out with the assistance of UNAIDS and other multilateral agencies, and
were quite effective but these need to be reactivated.
78
5.5 K EY AREAS TO BE ADDRESSED IN H EALTH, REPRODUCTIVE H EALTH AND POPULATION
1. Need to strengthen community based primary health services and to encourage a
participatory approach.
2. There should be greater emphasis on continuous training programmes for medical
and para-medical staff.
3. The organisational structure of health services at the central level should be
reviewed and re-engineered along corporate lines with clearer strategic
orientations, greater transparency, accountability and effectiveness in policymaking.
4. Sex education programmes aimed at adolescents must be strengthened and made
more efficient both in and out of school. Co-ordination between different
Ministries such as education, health, women and social security would be
essential for the greater efficiency of these programmes.
5. The problem of teenage pregnancy must be addressed.
6. The issue of sexual exploitation of youth, both male and female needs urgent
attention given the disturbing findings of a study that has just been carried out by
the Ministry of Women, Child Development and Family Welfare on this problem.
7. Couples facing problems of infertility must be given all the necessary and
available help in their endeavour.
8. There should be more health education programmes geared towards working
women through greater use of audio-visual media techniques.
9. There should be studies on the causes of the high incidence of low birth weight
babies, stagnating stillbirth and infant mortality rates which have remained at
fairly high levels. The health and general well-being of the mother, in particular
her nutritional status, must be looked into. It is also important that maternity
wards be better equipped. At present there is a scarcity of life support equipment
for newborn babies, especially low birth weight babies.
10. At the level of family planning methods, the move to less reliable birth control
methods must be studied.
11. Women must be sensitised about the need to start antenatal care early in their
pregnancy. At the same time access to such services must take into account
women’s time constraints especially those who are working.
12. To promote breastfeeding, the benefits and meaning of exclusive breast feeding
for the first 4-6 months should be explained as this is not very well understood.
Weaning practices should also be explained to young mothers.
13. A system of screening must be established to detect breast and cervical cancer.
14. The high incidence of abortion cannot be ignored and must be urgently addressed
although it is recognised that it is a sensitive issue for religious reasons and must
be dealt with very carefully. Further studies should also be conducted to assess the
extent of the problem, as well as the profile of women having recourse to abortion
and problems encountered by these women.
15. The programme of information and education on STDs and HIV/AIDs in
particular should be strengthened.
16. Sensitisation programmes on non-communicable diseases should be supported.
79
6.0 EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN
6.1 INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS
Out of the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing in 1995 emerged the Beijing
Declaration and Platform for Action (PFA) which affirms the commitment of States to
adhere to 12 critical areas of concern regarding women and gender (i.e. poverty,
education, health, violence, economy, armed conflict, power and decision making,
institutional mechanisms, human rights, media, the environment, and the girl child).
The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women
(CEDAW) was ratified by Mauritius in 1985. This Convention cons ists of 30 articles,
defines what constitutes discrimination against women, and sets up an agenda for
national action to end such discrimination.
Mauritius is also a signatory of the 1995 Commonwealth Plan of Action on Gender and
Development which ident ified gender mainstreaming as key strategy towards realising
gender equality.
In 1997, Mauritius signed the Gender and Development Declaration of the SADC Heads
of State and the subsequent Addendum on the Prevention and Eradication of Violence
against Women and Children in 1998.
6.2 GOVERNMENT S TRATEGIES AND POLICIES RESPONDING TO INTERNATIONAL
INSTRUMENTS
As follow- up to the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing in 1995, the
Government of Mauritius approved the National Gender Action Plan (NGAP) 57 in
December 1999. The NGAP for Mauritius adopts many of the recommendations found
in the Beijing Platform for Action and was formulated following extensive consultations
with government ministries, NGOs, CBOs, the private sector, and civil society.
The Government of Mauritius committed itself to implement the Beijing Platform for
Action in the following areas:
•
•
•
•
80
Development of a holistic approach to the health and welfare of women with special
attention to the girl child, and women at work at home and outside the home
Enactment of a Domestic Violence Act coupled with a national Information,
Education and Communication campaign
Integration of gender issues into government and private sector activities
Formulation of a policy to encourage girls to take up technical and non-traditional
subjects so that they may engage in professions, which were hitherto, considered as
male domains only
The MWFWCD has pushed the government to make various legal changes in the
constitution in order to ensure more gender equa lity and adherence to CEDAW. These
changes are covered in section 6.3.6.
6.3 INTERVENTIONS OF GOVERNMENT, UN AND OTHER PARTNERS
6.3.1 Domestic Violence
Following recommendations from the Beijing Conference and in accordance with one of
the critical areas of concern in the PFA, the Government of Mauritius has passed a
Protection from Domestic Violence Act in November 1997. In May 1998, UNIFEM
approved a “Violence against Women project” in Mauritius under its UNIFEM Trust
Fund. This project was implemented by MWFWCD and included the setting up of an
institutional framework, the sensitisation of the Mauritian public, and the training of its
human resources in order to make the new Act fully operational.
6.3.2 Gender Mainstreaming
The MWFWCD has set up a Gender Bureau in 1998 to promote gender mainstreaming
and gender awareness in public and private sectors, and among civil society through a
Gender Management System. The UNDP provided the services of a consultant to assist
with this process. Gender focal points have also been identified in all ministries and
departments. The Gender Bureau will also be implementing a Gender Sensitisation and
Training Strategy in April 2000.
The UNDP Mauritius is funding a “Gender and Development in Mauritius” Programme
which will promote gender equality and mainstreaming through capacity building and
technical assistance. Some of the objectives are to strengthen in-country gender analysis,
policy making, and monitoring expertise at MWFWCD; and enhance the national
capacity to engender national budgeting mechanisms and data collection and analysis.
6.3.3 Women Entrepreneurship and Poverty
A Women Entrepreneurship Unit was set up by the MWFWCD to carry out special
training programmes and to give advice to prospective women entrepreneurs. They have
also launched a Grameen Microcredit Programme in Rodrigues and Mauritius in
December 1997 that is targeted towards poor women in particular. A National Women
Entrepreneurs Council was launched in March 2000. A directory of wo men entrepreneurs
has been published in 1998.58
A joint UNDP/UNIDO “Gender Mainstreaming and Women Entrepreneurship
Development Programme” was set up in January 1997 to promote entrepreneurship
development among women by training women in food preparation and food hygeine.
The UNDP/ILO “Fight Against Exclusion through Participatory Community
Development and Promotion of Income Generating Activities” project in Rodrigues
81
addresses the problem of feminisation of poverty through micro-credit lending. The
project began in April 1999 and will cover a period of two years. It aims to create
sustainable livelihoods and income-generating jobs, through the promotion of microenterprises for low-skilled poor people, especially poor women. As 20% of households
are female-headed in Rodrigues, and these households are the poorest, they make up a
large portion of the recipients of credit. 80% of borrowers are women (UNDP 1999).59
The problem of lack of access to credit facilities is specially acute in Rodrigues where
more than 50% of the women are engaged in agricultural activities and do not have easy
access to credit because of lack of collaterals and technical know-how. There are also
currently two other micro-credit programmes targeted towards poor women funded by
IFAD and the EU.
6.3.4 The Girl Child
MWFWCD has organised a workshop on the theme of “Empowerment of the Girl Child”
in 1999 in which various ministries, NGOs, and organisations participated. They have
also formulated a National Action Policy on the Girl Child.
6.3.5 Women’s Health
The Ministry of Health and Quality of Life has recently launched a programme of
screening for cervical cancer in Mauritius and Rodrigues.
6.3.6 Gender and the Law
The MWFWCD, through the use of their Legal Advisor, has successfully brought about
significant changes to the Napoleon Code since 1981 in favour of gender equality. Some
of the major legal provisions are:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
82
Women are no longer considered as minors and their husband’s chattel as they were before.
A woman can now choose her profession, set up a business, open bank accounts without the
permission of her husband.
Women have a choice of matrimonial regime.
She can choose to marry and retain control and rights over part of her wealth which does not fall in the
common conjugal pool.
Divorce can now be granted on the grounds of ‘faute’ or ‘rupture de vie commune.’
The minimum age for marriage without consent is 18. Between the ages of 16 and 18, a girl may get
civilly married with her parents’ consent.
Any person having sexual intercourse with a female under 16 years of age is liable to prosecution
under the criminal code.
The labour and Industrial Relations Act which now guarantees the equality of men and women with
respect to the individual’s constitutional right to work and protection from unlawful dismissal. There is
no legislation yet which guarantees the principle of equal pay for equal work.
The National Pension’s Act was amended in 1987 to waive the discrepancy between men and women
concerning the payment of a lump sum to the surviving spouse before he or she reaches the age of
retirement.
Since 1979, the Income Tax Act was amended to allow married women drawing emoluments to choose
to be assessed separately from their spouse. In 1992, the Act was again amended to allow women to
deduct their contributions to an approved medical scheme, which they could not do before. And in
1993, their financial contributions to the upkeep of the children was finally recognised. There is now
•
•
•
•
legal provision for a woman who is the head of the household to deduct for her spouse if the latter is
unemployed or incapacitated or for some other reason.
In 1990, the Jury Act was amended to enable women to sit as jurors.
The discrimination against women in the Citizenship Act which previously allowed only a male citizen
to transmit his citizenship rights to his spouse was removed in 1995.
The Protection form Domestic Violence Bill was passed in 1997 with the view to protect women from
domestic violence.
The Criminal Code was amended in August 1998 to make sexual harassment a criminal offence.
The MWFWCD runs programmes on legal literacy through their network of Women and
Family Centres, Women’s Bureaux and Community Resource Centres as well as on work
sites. Also, one objective of the UNDP’s “Gender and Development in Mauritius”
Programme is to raise awareness of women’s legal and human rights with civil society.
This will be done through the production and dissemination of legal brochures and videos
in various languages.
6.3.7 Gender and the Media
In February 1999, the UNDP funded the mission of an international expert in gender
communications to Mauritius to address the negative image of women in the media.
6.3.8 Women’s Political Participation
The UNDP’s “Gender and Development in Mauritius” Programme will also promote
gender equity in leadership and decision making through an in-depth research study on
women’s leadership and political involvement in Mauritius and targeted leadership
training for women involved in politics and/or holding leadership positions.
6.4 OBSTACLES FOR SUCCESSFUL FORMULATION OR I MPLEMENTATION OF
STRATEGIES/POLICIES
Although an impressive number of administrative and legal changes have been brought to
empower women, there are still some major constraints in the way of implementation of
strategies and policies.
A major constraint has been the lack of appropriately trained human resources to
implement the programmes of action in the country as a whole and even within the
Ministry (MWFWCD) itself. A lack of co-ordination between relevant ministries and
NGOs has also been noted. Much of the work that is being done could be much more
effective by being complementary with greater co-ordination and interaction between the
different organisations and agencies.
Constraints which are cultural in nature are more difficult to overcome as they are very
deeply rooted in religion and age-old traditions. Although there have been considerable
changes in attitudes towards women who decide to go into the labour market or engage in
public life, there is still a lot of ambiguity with regard to changes in women’s role in the
household. Women can contribute efficiently in the labour force only if role
83
responsibilities in the household are altered to enable her to juggle with her triple burden,
at home, at work and in the community. There are still some major obstacles at this level.
The issue of the promotion of cultural diversity in a society like Mauritius complicates
matters, as women are often depicted as the main depository and transmitter of cultural
traditions, in which the submissive and unobtrusive characteristic of women are regarded
to be important values to retain. This creates insurmountable problems for women who
choose to go off the beaten track of tradition.
Rapid ind ustrialisation created considerable opportunities for women to enter the labour
force. However there have also been many costs, such as long working hours, strained
conjugal relations and major lifestyle changes, factors which have not always been
conducive to women’s fulfilment and empowerment.
There is a serious lack of gender disaggregated data at present which hampers effective
policy/programme formulation. Although there have been a number of studies carried
out by students, academics, practitioners in the field on the gender issue, much more
needs to be done in this field. Also, many critical areas of subordination have not been
studied.
6.5 ANALYSIS OF G ENDER ISSUES , CAUSALITIES AND D EVELOPMENT GAPS
The GDI rank for Mauritius for the year 1997 was 57 on total of 174 countries (Gender
Development Index is HDI adjusted for gender inequality). Mauritius ranks 61 on 174
countries on the GEM index table (Gender Empowerment Index which measures
participation of women in key areas of economic and political participation and decision
making). In 1997, Mauritius performed a little better in HDI but its performance in GDI
and GEM has decreased slightly from previous years. 60
6.5.1 Gender Issues in the Economy
By far the most important factor which has changed the position of women over the past
couple of decades has been the entry of large numbers of women into the labour force as
a result of the adoption of the export oriented industrialisation strategy. This has caused
some dramatic changes in gender relations and roles. In 1998, the majority (37%) of
employed women were found in the EPZ manufacturing sector where average salary is
low compared to other sectors. This is followed by the services sector with 25%. The
female activity rate has risen from 34.7% in 1990 to 39.4% in 1998.61
However, data on male and female employment still demonstrate a marked tendency for
women to be bunched in the low paid and low skill jobs with a very low percentage in
positions of high responsibility such as legislators and administrators. Earnings figures
compiled by the Statistical Office are not gender disaggregated and thus, it is difficult to
assess gender differentials in earnings. Survey data indicates that men have higher
earnings than women and this could be explained by more hours of overtime performed
by men than by women. 62 In any case, the level of earnings in the manufacturing sector
is the lowest among all work sectors in the economy. The 1995 Labour Force Survey63
84
revealed that the median salary for women was Rs. 2,300 while for men it was Rs. 3,500
meaning that women earned around 2/3 as much as men in 1995. The situation seems to
be deteriorating because the 1996/97 Household Budget Survey64 showed that the median
salary for women was Rs. 3,250 compared to Rs. 5,611 for men.
Although women have considerably benefited from employment opportunities with the
setting up of the Export Processing Zone, their overall position in the economy remains
vulnerable. The EPZ sector is not covered by provisions of the Labour Laws regarding
compensation in cases of closure as in other work sectors of the economy. There are also
fears that there may have been a de-skilling process in the sense that they have not really
benefited from any technology transfer in the low skill jobs that they occupy in factories.
There are genuine fears that women might become marginalised with the adoption of new
industrial strategies, involving high-tech production processes, given that access to
mechanised technology and skills training is highly gendered and male-biased. It is
important that women are fully integrated in all technical training schemes which would
facilitate a more sustained and long term integration in the labour market. It would also
increase their access to a range of employment possibilities in many other sectors.
The Mauritius Employers Federation Annual Report of 1997 reveals some disturbing
trends with regard to women unemployment levels. In August 1997 out of the 10,855
registered unemployed there were 4736 males and 6119 females which means that
women make up 56.4% of the unemployed. The unemployment rate for men increased
from 3.1% in 1990 to 3.9% in 1997; for women, it increased from 2.3% to 9.8% in the
same time period.65
Rapid industrialisation has dramatically affected gender relations in households, work
sites and communities, and has triggered a certain amount of tension and considerable
ambivalence about what the role of women should be. Young women’s employment has
weakened the influence of the family on attitudes and behaviour of youth generally. A
number of studies were carried out on the social impact of industrialisation in the early
1990s. These studies reflect as much concern for the welfare of women workers’ health
and wellbeing as they do for their efficient integration in the labour market. The studies
focussed on problems of health and nutrition, absenteeism and productivity levels.
Recognition of issues such as gender-based violence and sexual harassment has
increased. This may be partially due to the fact that women are becoming more
economically and socially independent and enjoy considerable support, both informal and
organised, which is altering gender relations in households. Reactions to such emerging
problems have been varied ranging from a co nservative agenda based on reasserting
moral and familial values based on parental and male authority and homemaking roles for
women to a more pragmatic and liberal approach highlighting the importance of women
in the economy and the need to facilitate the ir efficient integration in the economy.
In the sugar industry, women find difficulties in rising to the position of sirdars. Out of
500 sirdars, there are only 2 women. No women are in managerial positions in the sugar
industry. 66
85
The structure of the Mauritian economy and the educational system have not contributed
to the development of the entrepreneurial spirit, whether it is among men or women.
However, the problem is more acute among women for a number of reasons mainly
linked to traditional attitudes regarding women’s role in the family. Apart from women’s
lack of access to credit, information networks, and inhibitions and lack of selfconfidence, there is considerable resistance to her involvement in male dominated
business networks, and her interaction with male business partners outside normal family
parameters.
There has been some improvement over the past few years. A directory of women
entrepreneurs67 was published in 1998 with a total number of 86 women who had
registered their enterprises: 21 in textile, 12 in various crafts, 3 in pottery, 2 in metal
products, 5 in leather products, 2 in wood products, 21 in services (kindergartens, driving
schools etc) and 20 in food processing.
6.5.2 Gender Inequality in Decision-Making
According to the MWFWCD, 68 in June 1998, there were 541 women employed as
legislators, senior officials and managers (29.2% female). This includes 3 Permanent
Secretaries (12.5%), 20 Permanent Assistant Secretaries (33.3%), 30
Directors/Managers/Executive Secretaries (16.8%), 15 Rector/Principals (29.4%), and
375 Head-teachers/Deputy Head-teachers (37.3%). In Rodrigues, in June 1998, there
were 9 women legislators, senior officials and managers (28.1%).
In the National Legislative Assembly, the number and percentage of women has moved
from 2 (3.2%) in 1983 to 4 (6.5%) in 1987 to 2 (3.2%) in 1991 and 6 (9.7%) in 1995. In
the Municipal Council the position is roughly the same the figures fluctuating between 7
and 8 (5.6-6.3%) but there seems to have been an improvement in the latest municipal
elections in 1996, when 11 (8.7%) were elected. At village council elections the figure
has fluctuated between 14 (1.9%) and 15 (1.0%) until the last elections in 1997, where
there seems to have been an improvement with 41 women village councillors bringing
the percentage up to 2.8%. In all the three types of elections, at national, municipal and
village levels, a slight improvement has been noted. It would seem that political parties
are paying more attention to the impact of the women on the electoral process.
It is still difficult for women to participate fully in the political process. Although many
of them militate at a grassroots level and in election campaigns very few are found in
decision- making levels such as politbureaus and central committees. It is important to
encourage all the major political parties to be more proactive and dynamic by presenting
more women candidates at all elections.
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6.5.3 Women and Health Issues
There has been considerable improvement in the health status of women and children
over past years. Life expectancy has risen from 62 in 1962 to 74.5 in 1997 for females,
and from 58.7 to 66.5 for males. The fertility rate has fallen from 6 in the 1960s to 2.1 in
1997.69
Although Mauritius has made significant advances in terms of health services, there is
still a relatively high maternal mortality rate (50 per 100,000 live births in 1997). The
infant mortality rate and percentage of babies born underweight are also somewhat high
(20.3 per 1,000 live birt hs and 13% of live births respectively for 1997). There has meant
a slight upturn in the infant mortality rate since 1995 when it was 19.6 per 1,000 live
births. There has also been an increase in the percentage of babies born underweight
since 1991 when it was 9.5% in 1991.70 The target fixed for the year 1995 was 5%
however this percentage may not be reached even in the year 2000. The slow decline
and inconsistent trends in infant mortality rates and worrying rise in low birth weight
babies is a serious problem and would seem to due to socio-economic factors such as
poverty, lack of access to information, unhealthy lifestyles, inappropriate nutrition, and
physical fatigue in the workplace.
There are also new health concerns arising from changes in lifestyles and food habits.
Due to increased time pressures, women have been relying more heavily on the
preparation and consumption of fast foods for themselves and their families. A 1998
survey carried out by the Ministry of Health and Quality of Life 71 has shown that there
has been an increase in Non Communicable Diseases (NCD) such as obesity, high blood
pressure, cholesterol, and diabetes. The survey also found that due to an imbalance in
diet, there is a high prevalence of anaemia in pregnant women and the delivery of
premature babies and low weight babies.
The number of deaths among women due to heart diseases and cerebro-vascular diseases
is on the increase. There has also been an increase in the number of cases of breast,
cervical and uterine cancers over the past few years. 72 Country-wide detection tests are
needed at regular intervals (pap smears and mammographies). The Ministry of Health
and Quality of Life has recently launched a programme of screening for cervical cancer
in Mauritius and Rodrigues, however it does not reach out to a large percentage of
women. Also, private clinics charge high fees for such tests.
A large number of women have entered the labour force over the last two decades, and as
a result, women’s workload has tripled. This has led to fatigue, strain, ergonomic
problems and stress. These problems may be even more acute in nuclear family
households. In addition, problems of depression, alcoholism and mental stress are
becoming more common. However, Mauritius is lacking in mental health professionals
prepared to deal with this problem.
The entry of large numbers of women into the labour force has made them less accessible
to health education programmes and community health campaigns on a door to door
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basis. New forms of education and information transmission channels must be developed
to adapt to the new situation of women.
6.5.4 Reproductive Health and Abortion
Population control and family planning have been very successful in Mauritius, largely
due to the small size of the island, high literacy rate of the population, and rapid growth
of the economy generating high aspiration levels for children. However, a decline was
noted in the contraceptive prevalence rate from 80% in 1985 to 75% in 199173. With
larger numbers of women working for longer hours in industrial factories, there is a
problem of access to them for health education programmes.
Official records from various family planning agencies indicate that the oral pill has
remained for a long time, the most commonly used method of contraceptive. However, a
new trend is being detected indicating a shift away from the pill to less reliable forms of
contraceptives such as the rhythm and withdrawal methods.
Most family planning strategies have been aimed at women, however, there has been a
move in many other countries to focus more on the role of men and their responsibility in
family planning through contraceptive use. This approach is being attempted by
organisations in Mauritius such as the Mauritius Family Pla nning Association.
Teenage pregnancy (under 19 years) has remained at a 10% level over the last 10 years.74
Many of these pregnancies also terminate in abortion, therefore it has important
implications for the education and future life chances of the girl child. At consultations
held during the framing of the National Gender Action Plan, a felt need for reproductive
health education in schools and youth clubs emerged.
Abortion is illegal in Mauritius however there is a high rate of illegal abortions in the
country. Many pregnant women, due to poverty and lack of information are forced to
turn to back-street abortions or to use self- induced abortion methods, thus endangering
their health. The only way to arrive at an estimate of the number of abortions taking
place is on the basis of the number of complications after abortions being admitted to
hospitals. The number of post abortion complications admitted in the public and private
health institutions was 1,497 in 1988 and this has increased to 2,684 in 1998. 75 It is
generally thought that there may be 6 to 10 cases of abortion for every case of
complication that is admitted to hospital. If the average of 8 is used, then it would mean
that there may have been around 21,750 abortions in 1996 and 21,472 cases in 1998,
which is higher than the number of live births for those years.
A study carried out in 1992 indicated that the large majority of those resorting to
abortions are married who already have children. 76 Therefore it is clear that the problem
is either that contraception is not used at all or is not properly used, or else the method
used is not reliable enough. Some are pushing for the legalisation of abortion in
Mauritius, however, it is clear that many obstacles exist to prevent this from occurring at
the moment.
88
6.5.5 Gender-based Violence
There has recently been considerable sensitisation of the problem of domestic violence
and the way that it affects women. This is slowly being perceived as a human rights issue
at the national level but remains problematic at the level of the domestic unit.
According to Police records, from 1994 to 1996 there were 7,766 reported cases of
violence against women of which 3,282 were reported to have been committed by the
husband or the partner; 2,044 by relat ives including fathers, step- fathers, parents- in- law
and other relatives and 2,453 by persons outside the victim’s family. Data from the
Ministry’s Counselling Service indicate that from 1994 to 1995, there had been a rise of
cases of domestic violence aga inst women from 425 cases to 966. It is difficult to say
whether this rise reflects an increase in incidence or in the number of cases now being
reported which a few years ago would have remained hidden. But there is no doubt that
the changing structure of the family towards greater nuclearisation has considerable
isolated victims and hence worsened their plight. The stress and strain of longer hours of
work in an industrial setting coupled by the fact that there have not been dramatic
changes in the distribution of household responsibilities have also contributed to
heightened family tension which can lead to violence.
The problems of violence and harassment directed against women in places of work are
very difficult problems to address. Given the socially and psychologically sensitive
nature of this problem which is normally related to relationships of domination and
exploitation, there is very little data on which to assess the extent of the problem. But
from informal reports, it would seem that the problem exists to a fairly important extent
and should be addressed.
6.5.6 Feminisation of Poverty
The strength of the family network has often dampened the hard blows of economic
hardship and recession. However, the situation is rapidly changing and family solidarity
and community support is no longer as strong as it used to be. Although official figures
do not necessarily demonstrate a high incidence of female headed households (18%)
there is evidence that many women have to fend for themselves independently of the
physical presence of a male partner in the household. There is a slightly higher proportion
of declared female- headed households in Rodrigues. However, official figures are not
useful indicators of the women’s actual role and responsibilities in the household. The
strong patriarchal norm which prevails makes it difficult for women to declare
themselves as heads of households if a male spouse is present in the household even if
they are the main provider in the family.
In Rodrigues, the situation is more serious. A survey77 carried out by the Rodrigues
Council of Social Services in all villages indicated that 63.6% of single parent female
headed households were living on an income of less than Rs 1000 and 86% on an income
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of less than Rs 2000. The problem is compounded by the fact that there are very few
employment opportunities for women in the island of Rodrigues.
The Social Fabric Study of 1999, 78 mentions the increasing cases of women who facing
severe economic hardship and who are often abandoned by their partners. They often
resort to livelihood strategies where the line between promiscuity, adultery and
commercial sex work becomes very thin.
6.5.7 Gender Disparities in Education
Educational statistics do not indicate blatant gender inequalities at the primary and
secondary levels of the education system. Figures in fact show better performance levels
for girls than for boys in most national examinations, at the end of the primary and the
secondary cycles. But there are still certain disciplines which are considered to be male
preserves and where girls are largely or totally absent. Although there are no institutional
barriers to the entry of girls in courses such as Engineering at the University of Mauritius
or pre-vocational training courses, there is lack of motivation on the part of girls to take
up these opportunities because of the absence of women in the work sectors which
require these specific skills. It would seem also that girls tend to do less well in the
poorer resourced schools which could indicate the dual impact of class and gender on
educational performance. 79
6.6 K EY AREAS OF POSSIBLE INTERVENTION ON GENDER D EVELOPMENT ISSUES
1. There is a need for capacity-building in public and private sectors for gender
awareness, gender sensitivity and gender mainstreaming at all levels. It must be
ensured that national mechanisms have the ability to carry out gender
mainstreaming and to respond to gender issues effectively (including budgeting
mechanisms, data collection systems, research, analysis etc.).
2. Need to assess poverty alleviation programmes for gender sensitivity and impact
on poor women
3. Promoting women in decision-making functions/roles (by building the capacity of
grassroots women, girls at school, and those already engaged in politics or
positions of leadership in different sectors and spheres)
4. Reconciling women’s unpaid and paid work and the need for policy responses to
the burdens/strains associated with working women
5. Need to create more opportunities for women in the employment market in
particular by orienting girls towards science and technical subjects as well as
vocational training.
6. Breaking down the “Glass Ceiling” in the work place
7. Drawing men into activities and programmes relating to family welfare (including
family planning) and re-engaging them in households. This will require changes
in gender relations and roles.
8. Providing capacity building support to women’s NGOs, CBOs, and associations
and more co-ordination between them and governmental bodies
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9. Supporting women in their economic activities through equitable access to credit
etc.
10. Women and human rights issues – the need for new and amended legislation
regarding labour, employment, etc. and more changes to Napoleon Code to reflect
gender equality
11. Sensitisation of the general public to gender issues through public
relations/communications strategies by ministries, NGOs, and international
organisations (advocacy)
12. Focusing on adolescent girls and boys (education and sex education, and building
their skills and leadership abilities)
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7.0 CHILD RIGHTS DEVELOPMENT
7.1 International Instruments
Fulfilling the basic needs and rights of children is more than a question of national
development. It is also a question of international rights and the moral and legal
obligation the Mauritian society to its children. The Government has committed itself to
protecting the rights of the child through a number of international and national events,
including the access to the Convention of the Rights of the Child (CRC) in July 1990.
In July 1995, the first CRC country report was submitted to the special Monitoring
Committee set up by the UN. The Committee was generally pleased with the report.
However, some principal areas of concern mentioned by the Committee include:
The CRC is not yet an integral part of the national legislation and that national law and
regulations are not fully consistent with the principles and provisions of the Convention.
The Protection of the Child (Miscellaneous) Act that has recently been voted by the
National Assembly will largely resolve this problem. Issues being addressed by the
amendments being proposed are child abuse, child labour, sexual exploitation, exposure
to physical dangers and risks and other areas where children are concerned.
Insufficient attention was being paid at both national and local levels, to the need for an
efficient monitoring mechanism that could provide a systematic and comprehensive
compilation of data and indicators on all areas covered by the Convention and in relation
to all groups of children, especially those who are victims of abuse. There is at present a
considerable amount of statistical and other data sources from which a great deal of
information can be obtained but there is a need to set up a centralised mechanism which
would facilitate the integration of all this data into a more relevant and meaningful data
set to enable regular updating and monitoring of the situation. Reports on the situation of
children could be published on a regular basis. There may be a need to review certain
data collection techniques. The collaboration of the CSO would be essential in this
context.
The Committee also recommended the establishment of an independent mechanism such
as an Ombudsperson for the Rights of the Child, a wide circulation of the Convention as
well as the subsequent country report and written replies in order to generate debate and
awareness of the Convention, its implementation and monitoring within the Government,
the Parliament, non-governmental organisations and the general public. It was suggested
that the CRC could be incorporated in the school curricula.
7.2 GOVERNMENT S TRATEGIES AND POLICIES RESPONDING TO INTERNATIONAL
INSTRUMENTS
All sections of the Mauritian Constitution apply to children and adults alike. Therefore
Mauritius is in the process of reviewing and revising national legislation related to
92
children for conformity with its own constitution and international obligations embedded
in the CRC and other international instruments. There have been several amendments to
existing laws and some new pieces of legislation which have been introduced in the last
decade reflecting new policy approaches adopted towards children.
The major ones are: The National Adoption Council Act of 1987, The National
Children’s Council Act of 1990, The Child Protection Act of 1994, Amendments to the
Constitution to ensure gender equality, Amendments related to Citizenship and The
Protection from Domestic Violence Act of 1997. Further amendments to existing
legislation in line with the CRC are: The Protection of the Child (Miscellaneous) Act,
The Criminal Code Amendment Act and The Criminal Code (supplementary amendment)
Act.
Implementation of rights in the Convention (article 4 of the CRC) sets out States' overall
obligations to implement all the rights in the Convention on the Rights of the Child. The
National Programme of Action for the survival, Development and Protection of Children,
the NPA, 80 which was endorsed by the Government in 1992, provides a common
platform for action with regard to children. The NPA is the instrument by which
Mauritian commitments to children are being carried out. It is a mechanism for
identifying all the plans for children developed by government departments, nongovernmental organisations and other child-related structures, and for ensuring that these
plans converge in the framework provided by the Convention, the goals of the World
Summit for Children, and the country’s development programme.
Article 28 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child establishes the child's right to
education. Mauritius is committed to the principle of total equity in educational
opportunity. Education is free at primary, secondary and tertiary levels. At the preprimary level it is partially free and currently new policies are being developed to
facilitate access to pre-primary education. In addition to the decision to subsidise private
provision of pre-primary education, Government has returned to the policy of increasing
pre-primary facilities in primary schools.
7.3 INTERVENTIONS MADE BY GOVERNMENT, UN AND OTHER PARTNERS .
7.3.1 Early Childhood
The issue of childcare has not been a priority for a long time because the traditional
community based family structure in the country catered more than adequately for the
needs of children of that age group. But the trend towards nuclearisation and especially
the increasing isolation of the family from the community is creating serious childcare
problems. The need to look after children prevents many women from engaging in other
activities, and in particular from earning adequate incomes. Also, due to prevailing
gender roles and relations in Mauritian society, men do not satisfactorily take
responsibility for domestic activities such as childcare which would lessen pressures
upon women in households. The increase in the number of monoparental households may
also be having a negative impact on childcare and socialization practices.
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In the last few years government has decided to address the issue of the care of children
under the age of 3 years and a study was commissioned on the needs of early childhood
and has come up with the following policy intentions:
•
•
•
•
Provision of a proper legislative framework with established norms and standards to
cover the home-based sector.
Provision of proper guidelines and regulations for a formal system of accreditation.
Establishment of a career service in child care through the proper training of
personnel and the formal recognition of this training, coupled with an appropriate
salary structure that is based on qualifications and experience.
Establishment of a centralised unit within the Ministry to manage the licensing,
standardisation and supervision of all childcare services.
The Mauritius Institute of Education has started to offer special training for teachers in
the field of Early Childhood Development.
The CRC provides the rationale for alternative systems of care for children in need. At
least 15 Articles support the development of a foster care approach. It is shown that while
foster care has no formal recognition in Mauritius, a number of organisations are
currently implementing fostering programmes and developed guidelines.81
7.3.2 Abuse
The problem of child abuse was addressed for the first time in 1990 when the National
Children’s Council operating under the aegis of the Ministry of Women set up a regional
Child Abuse Unit at the Jeetoo Hospital to diagnose and treat children who have been
victims of abuse. More recent amendments in the Child Protection Act made it an
obligation for doctors and teachers to report suspected cases of child abuse. The most
recent development has been the setting up in 1995 of regional units called Child
Development Units in 5 different localities where cases of abuse can be reported and
counselling and legal advice as well as shelter provided to battered children.
The Child Development Unit works closely with other agencies such as the Police
Department, health authorities, schools and college authorities. Good progress has been
achieved at the level of facilitating the detection and reporting of cases.
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7.3.3 Adolescence
Adolescence is becoming increasingly a period of opportunity and risk. Changes in life
styles, greater freedom, greater access to all sorts of information made possible by the
revolution of information technology have dramatically transformed the lives of young
people and at the same time also increased risk factors in their lives. But one should not
forget that children and young people are the major source of Mauritius’ human capital in
the future. The fact that they are the workers, scientists, parents and leaders of tomorrow
means that their survival, health, nutrition and educational progress are key issues for
reconstruction and development today.
The Ministry of Youth and Sports launched The National Youth Policy 2000-2004:
Empowering Youth in the New Millennium” in February 2000. It covers various issues
relating to youth including education, agriculture, health, population and family life
education, environment, arts and culture, sports and leisure, civics, and communications
and media.
7.4 OBSTACLES TO SUCCESSFUL IMPLEMENTATION OF STRATEGIES AND POLICIES
7.4.1 Primary education and CPE
The enrolment rates at primary level are very high, close to 100% and even beyond in
some cases, as some children are registered in more than one school. However, the
official enrolment figures do not reveal poor attendance or non-attendance, low
performance rates and other inefficiencies in the system. Although pass rates have
continued to increase over the years, it is not certain that they necessarily reflect
improvements in functional literacy rates.
One fundamental problem of the present school system is the competition, which exists at
the end of the primary cycle when there is a scramble for places in good secondary
schools. Only around 12 % of those who compete, manage to get places in the schools
referred to as the “star” schools on the basis of their performance at the CPE
examinations. One of the main reasons of this fierce competition is the fact that there are
huge variations in the standards of schools in different regions of the island.
There have been numerous unsuccessful attempts in the last ten years to introduce the 9year school system, which would to a certain extent reduce the competitive character of
the system by eliminating the intolerable pressure of the CPE examination of children of
11-12 years old. There are important inequalities between regions with pass rates at the
CPE ranging from 20% in some schools to 80% or 90% in others. The schools with the
lowest pass rates tend to occur in the most socio-economically deprived regions of the
country. The Master Plan published in 1991 82 devoted a whole section to “low achieving
schools” defined as those with pass rates of less than 30%. It was declared important to
improve standards in these schools for the sake of equity and efficiency. It was also
recognised that the problems of these schools were directly related to the social problems
of these localities.
95
The problem of CPE failure and the concern that this is causing is highlighted in the 1997
White Paper 83 in the following statement: “ for the 8892 who failed, only an aggregate of
2400 have found their way to Basic Pre-Vocational or Technical school. Over 6000 kids
are left without a future.” The major concern is that the legal working age is 15 years and
drop out rates at the end of the primary cycle imply that about 6000 kids are roaming
around in the streets, while some of them are probably employed illegally. It is hoped that
the proposed 9-year schooling system will help to resolve this problem by filling in “ the
waiting time between school and entry into the labour market.”
7.4.2 Abuse
Reported cases of physical and/or sexual abuse have been steadily increasing over the
past few years, indicating either an actual increase in the crime, or an increase in the
numbers being reported to the police. It is a fact however, that children are being
informed about abuse and they are therefore reporting abuse more than in the past.
Although progress is being made, the child protection system is lacking in many ways
and need urgent attention on all levels.
The aspect of secondary abuse in the court, lack of co-ordination between service
deliverers and lack of policy should be addressed. And in order to strengthen services for
the care of abused children, more reliable data are needed, as is the education of parents
and youth at schools.
Children are generally not prepared for the court procedures and prosecutors do not make
use of educational psychologists or other specialists trained to explain to the court why
children sometimes react and answer in the way they do. Children are simply badgered
like adults and with the least discrepancy are labelled as “unreliable witnesses”.
Furthermore, it is imperative that all court officials, including high court judges, be
trained to understand the complexities of child abuse and especially child sexual abuse.
An additional problem is the scarcity of trained personnel in the area of counselling,
rehabilitation, child psychology and other related fields. A lot of this work requires a
fairly high level of professionalism and specialised training, which the staff of the
Ministry does not have for the moment.
7.4.3 Disabilities
There is no reliable information on the number of children with disabilities, but according
to the Ministry of Economic Planning and Development, there were in 1992, about 6000
children in need of special education. 84 The 1990 Census reported 2396 disabled children
aged between 0 – 14. This is probably a gross underestimation of the actual number of
the disabled as there is a great deal of underreporting in this context. There are mild
disabilities, which are not considered important enough to be reported by those giving
information to Census enumerators. Some of the disabilities are hidden for social reasons.
Disability in the Mauritian context still generates a great deal of stigma and shame for the
96
disabled and his environment and embarrassment in the general public. The disabled are
not very often seen in public and there are very few institutions to cater for their needs.
For the moment, most of the work being done is by NGOs with some assistance from
Government funds.
It is estimated that existing facilities are catering for the needs of just fewer than 1000 of
the 6000 children in need of special education. Due to lack of special schools, the
majority of them are integrated in the regular school system.
7.4.4 Adolescent reproductive health
The complete absence of sex and life skills education in schools is a matter of serious
concern. The CRC Monitoring Committee suggested that sex education should be
integrated into the school curricula. There is ambiguity in parents’ attitudes towards sex
education in schools. Many are worried that talking about sex in schools might in a sense
‘normalise’ sexual activity of youngsters still attending school. Therefore, the lack of
opportunities and services including Adolescent Reproductive Health services available
to children and young people in Mauritius must urgently be addressed. Teenage
pregnancy, STD´s, including HIV/AIDS requires an urgent and holistic response.
Effective strategies must be implemented to offer a more humane and sustainable future
for the youth. Skill development, education, and employment creation are critical
priorities in this regard.
7.5 ANALYSIS OF CHILD RIGHTS AND D EVELOPMENT G APS
Strong family values cut across all the different sections of the Mauritian population.
However it should be noted that there are still very deep traditions of parental authority
and filial obligation which characterise parent-children relationships. In this context, the
exercise of children’s rights can only become a reality if the general philosophy behind
the CRC is understood and accepted by parents, teachers and the community as a whole.
It is at present difficult to estimate parents’ and teachers’ awareness of the rights
approach to children needs and problems.
Many of the problems affecting children, whether it is in the fields of health or education
have structural causes which cut across many different sectors of their lives. For example,
to understand and address the problem of high drop-out rates of school children at
primary level it is not sufficient to examine immediate causes such as disinterest and lack
of parent and teacher motivation, but also to look at underlying and structural
environmental factors, such as poverty, unemployment, family violence, poor housing
and physical infrastructure, and difficulty of access to social services. A holistic and
multi-sectoral approach must be adopted at the level of both research and analysis as well
as of intervention.
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7.5.1 Juvenile justice
Article 40 (3) of the Convention on administration of juvenile justice, requires "the
establishment of laws, procedures, authorities and institutions specifically applicable to
children…" The article clearly implies special courts of law to deal with children in
conflict with the law.
There are at present ten different Juvenile Courts in Mauritius. Some of these Courts are
presided by very young Magistrates who although are qualified lawyers with at least two
years practice at the bar, may not be ideally trained to deal with the difficult problems
concerning children.
According to the Juvenile Justice Administration Report85 (p. 113) it is said that " …even
where a Court sits in camera the announcement of the decision of the Court must be made
in public, the present practice of the Juvenile Court to announce in camera its decision in
cases of juveniles, heard in Chambers, appears to be violate of the Constitution and
therefore illegal." The recommendations in the report show that there is an urgent need
for a formal juvenile justice system in the country to ensure that all children who come in
conflict with the law are treated according to the international standards on the
administration of juvenile justice. Without a juvenile justice policy, the involvement of
specific governmental and non-governmental bodies alike is insufficiently based on an
institutional concept.
7.5.2 Participation
The main articles in the CRC on Participation cover the rights to express views, the right
to information, the right to participate in cultural life and the arts, freedom of expression,
freedom of thought, conscience and religion, freedom of association and peaceful
assembly, the right to privacy. Participation rights generate the most controversy
especially in traditional and conservative societies where the power structure of the
family is built upon the supreme and unquestionable authority of parents.
With respect to Article 13 of the CRC, concerning freedom of expression, it can be said
that in general, Mauritian children are not encouraged to express their own opinions and
views at home or at school. Traditional approaches are still used in schools where the
teacher is considered to know best and a child considered impertinent by elders if he or
she challenges instructions.
Children have generally been kept out of the public sp here and out of important decisionmaking spheres, on the grounds that they would not be able to understand issues related
to the affairs of a country or the world. The result has been that children and young adults
have become totally disinterested in civic affairs. There has also been a tendency for
them to become over-dependent on their parents and teachers and to lack a spirit of
initiative and inquisitive minds as well as the ability to think independently.
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There have been some initiatives to encourage the participation of children in the recent
past, such as the Model United Nations, the Lonrho Award, MSPCA (Mauritius Society
for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals) and the National Youth Award, but
unfortunately all these activities are of a competitive nature. The UNICEF’s project,
Education for Development, which encourages the participatory approach in the teaching
and learning process, is a commendable effort in this direction.
7.5.3 Health
The main health statistics show definite improvements in health indicators of children
although the drop in mortality rate has not been going down as fast as necessary to reach
the targets set for the year 2000. The IMR (Infant Mortality Rate) went down from 57.0
per thousand live births to the lowest level reached at 18.0 per thousand live births in
1994 but has in the last couple of years there has been a upward trend to 19.4 in 1998.86
And therefore the target rate of 12 will not be reached by the year 2000. The main factor
contributing to this high rate is the frequency of neo-natal deaths, within the first week of
life.
Another area of concern is the rising rate in the incidence of low birth weight babies. The
figure with respect to deliveries carried out in government hospitals increased from 9.5%
in 1991 and has decreased slightly to 14.3% in 1998. The target fixed for the year 1995
was 5% and also this percentage may not be reached even in the year 2000. It is difficult
to explain this rise in infant mortality rates and low birth weight babies at the same time
as maternal mortality rates have been declining steadily. It would seem that the reasons
might be less directly related to medical factors than to socio-economic and psychosocial
ones such as poverty, lack of access to information, inappropriate nutrition, unhealthy life
styles, and physical fatigue in the workplace. It should be noted here that Rodrigues
which has a strong community based health care system with highly localised and
sometimes even domiciliary services has registered a relatively much lower rate of low
birth weight babies than Mauritius.
Surveys87 carried out in 1985 and 1995 indicate a definite improvement in the nutritional
status of children as a result of the improvement in the standard of living. Malnutrition
(low weight for age) has diminished from 12% in 1985 to 9.6% in 1995. Stunting
(chronic malnutrition) decreased from 17.5% to 10.2% but on the other hand acute
malnutrition (low weight for height) increased from 4.9% to 9.0%.
7.6
KEY CHILD RIGHTS DEVELOPMENT ISSUES
The following key issues are potential areas of further intervention by Government,
NGO's and UN agencies in the coming years:
1. To strengthen provisions for early childhood care and development
2. To further examine the impact on the child of competition at the primary
education level and especially the CPE
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3. To study and address the issue of educational inequalities at the primary level
especially in deprived regions
4. To better understand problems of adolescents in the country and to look into ways
of developing programmes of activities for their development.
5. To promote research in the field of child abuse and strengthen services for the
care of abused children
6. To formulate an appropriate Juvenile Justice policy
7. To assess the extent and nature of disabilities among children and support to the
provision of appropriate services in this field.
8. To address issues of health among children and more particularly the problem of
infant mortality and low birth weight babies
8.0 EDUCATION
8.1 GLOBAL CONFERENCES
Educational issues were covered by a number of International Conferences held since
1990. The most important one was the World Conference on Education for all: Meeting
Basic Learning Needs held in Thailand in 1990. The most important resolutions of this
conference were the following:
•
•
•
•
•
Expansion of early childhood care and development activities, especially for poor,
disadvantaged and disabled children.
Universal access to and completion of primary education by the Year 2000
Reduction of adult illiteracy rate to ½ of its 1990 level by the Year 2000 and to
significantly reduce the current disparity between male and female illiteracy rates.
Expansion of provision of basic education and training in other essential skills
required by youths and adults.
Increase of acquisition by individuals and families of the knowledge, skills and values
made available through all education channels including the mass media, other forms
of modern and traditional communications and social action
The International Consultative Forum on Education for Education for all held in Amman,
Jordan in June 1996, a mid-decade review of the Jomtien Declaration on Education for all
identified the following areas as needing continued support form Governments and
international organisations:
•
•
•
•
•
Reinforcement of education for girls
Emphasis on early childhood development
Greater importance on the quality rather than the quantity of school output
Facilitating the transition between basic education and higher level of education.
Formulation of out of school literacy and education programmes
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•
•
•
•
More efficient management of education systems
Monitoring system to assess progress and identify constraints
Elaboration of new strategies to make quality education accessible to all
Increasing the training, status and motivation of teachers.
8.2 GOVERNMENT POLICIES AND STRATEGIES
There have been a number of developments in the field of educational policy over the
past few years. A Master Plan was produced by the Ministry of Education, Arts and
Culture in 1991 entitled “Master Plan for the Year 2000” which covered all the different
levels of the education sector, namely the pre-primary, the primary, the secondary and the
tertiary as well as vocational, technical, adult and continuing education special education
and distance education.
Following the change of Government in December 1995, the new Ministry of Education
and Human Resource Development produced a White Paper on Education in 1997 which
covered the pre-primary, primary and secondary sectors of education. This was followed
by an Action Plan88 which covered the same three sectors. There is much controversy
both in the country and within Government on some of the measures that are being
recommended in the Action Plan, especially those related to the setting up of middle
schools, the phasing out of the CPE ranking system through the regionalisation of
secondary admissions. The Government has set up an inter- ministerial committee chaired
by the Deputy Prime Minister to look into the appropriate ways of implementing the plan.
Although the great majority of Mauritians are unhappy with the present system, there is a
great deal of resistance to the introduction of structural changes which some fear might
lower standards or work against the interest of their children. At the end of 1999,
Government announced a number of measures which form part of a comprehensive
package of recommendations for the education sector. The objectives of these measures
are to curb competition and to create conditions for greater equality of educational
opportunity. These measures which will take effect as from January 2001 are the
following:
•
•
•
•
The construction of 16 new secondary schools during year 2000
The regionalisation of admission procedures for 10,000 seats in secondary schools
The admission of 1100 pupils in high achieving schools on the basis of ranking at the
CPE examinations
The introduction of a priority programme to assist low achieving primary schools,
including a special incentive bonus of Rs 1000 per month for Head Teachers and
teachers working in those schools as a measure of affirmative action.
8.3 GOVERNMENT AND INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATION INTERVENTION 89
The Government has committed itself to enforcing pre-primary education as a right and
as a first step in this direction has taken the decision in 1998, to contribute the sum of Rs
200 towards the fees for every 4 year old child attending a pre-school registered with the
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Ministry. The policy was to encourage private initiatives in the pre-primary sector.
However more recently, the Government has gone back to its original plans to create a
pre-primary sector within existing State primary schools.
An important UNICEF supported programmes have been launched for the pre-school
stage (see section on Child’s Rights). Another UNICEF project, which has been widely
accepted in several schools in Mauritius and Rodrigues, is the Education for
Development programme which seeks to advocate values of global solidarity, peace,
tolerance and awareness of environmental issues.
The programme of reme dial education and special support for low achieving schools, the
ZEP (Zone d’Education Prioritaire) which had started in the early 1990, was reinforced
with greater emphasis being placed on a holistic approach in the delivery of education,
and on the upgrading of the zone in which the low achieving schools are found.
UNESCO is also supporting another project set up by the Ministry of Education,
Learning Without Frontiers, that relates basic education to social goals and is aimed at
providing basic literacy to disadvantaged groups in society.
The Basic Education for Out of School Adolescents in Rodrigues (BEFA), a joint
initiative of the Ministry for Rodrigues, the Rodrigues Council of Social Services and
UNICEF, aims at providing a second opportunity to illiterate out-of-school youths of 1317 to have access to basic education.
The pressure of demand for good secondary schools led Government to resume its
programme of construction of new secondary schools in 1995. In 1996, 6 new State
secondary schools were opened making a total of 29 State secondary schools. In response
to the problem of drop outs form the primary cycle, four basic secondary schools,
catering for those who had failed the CPE, became operational on a pilot basis in 1995.
There are now 20 such basic secondary schools catering close to 2000 students.
The Model United Nations programme initiated by the UNDP and supported by
UNESCO and the Ministry of Education, involves about 800 students annually and seeks
to sensitise young secondary leve l students to the social and political issues of both
national and international importance and relevance.
The programme of the Ministry of Education to give all schools and colleges access to
computer facilities and the Internet is well under way.
Government response to growing demand for tertiary education has been to encourage
the setting up of new Universities both in the private and the public sectors. In 2000, two
new institutions, namely the Mauritius University of Technology and the Knowledge
Centre (De Chazal Du Mée), will be operational. The University of Mauritius is also
gradually increasing its intake.
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8.4 OBSTACLES AND CONSTRAINTS TO SUCCES SFUL IMPLEMENTATION OF POLICIES AND
STRATEGIES
Education is the sector where there has been the greatest number of reports and
recommendations ranging from small remedial action to improve the system to major
structural reforms. It has been difficult to reach consensus on the major reforms being
proposed, such as regionalisation of admissions to secondary school, the use of oriental
languages in performance assessment and ranking at CPE level, the gradual elimination
of the ranking system at the CPE, the 9 year basic school system (incorporating middle
schools), and more recently the new idea of stratifying secondary schools into different
categories of schools, based on past performance levels.
Obstacles to all these recommendations are numerous as listed below:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Lack of political and national consensus without which major reforms cannot be
effected
Organisational constraints within the Ministry itself
Difficulties of integrating confessional and other private schools within such reforms
Delicate language issue
Parental interest in maintaining an elitist system
Parental rejection of technical educatio n and preference for academic education
Teachers’ resistance to major reforms which involve drastic changes in pedagogical
and organisational structures, and in their scheme of duty
The existence of a parallel system with institutionalised private tuition at all levels.
Low levels of commitment and inadequate salary incentive structures to attract good
teachers.
Not enough emphasis on pastoral care and complete education at teacher training
level
Over-centralisation of decision making in the interest of standardisation and control
which sometimes stifles initiatives at the level of individual teachers.
Lack of a clearly defined objective for tertiary education and lack of co-ordination
between the different tertiary level institutions leading to duplicatio n and wastage.
Although the Government, international organisations and the private sector have been
engaged in laudable initiatives to improve the system, all the projects undertaken can
only have limited impact unless major reforms are carried out.
8.5 UNDERLYING CAUSES AND DEVELOPMENT GAPS
8.5.1 The Primary Level
Educational policies in Mauritius date back to the 1950s. A great deal has been achieved
in the field of education. There are no legal or institutional obstacles to access and good
performance. However, there are other factors which are in the way of complete equality
of educational opportunity.
103
Although Mauritius has succeeded in maintaining its policy of free education at both
primary and secondary level, there are still serious problems of underachievement and
inequality in some regions of the island. The very high enrolment rates (nearly 100% for
both boys and girls) may also not necessarily reflect corresponding levels of functional
literacy.
Educational inequalities have deep rooted causes which go back into the historical
formation of Mauritian society which has generated both economic and social disparities
which persist up to the present time. The lowest pass rates at the CPE level are found in
the most socially and economically deprived regions of the country, where failure rates
are as high as 60-70%. Some qualitative research studies have been carried out to
determine the causes of educational underachievement in these areas. The reasons
advanced are poverty, absence of social capital, low motivation and lack of interest on the
part of parents and of teachers. The problem of the attitude of teachers has been
highlighted in an in depth study carried out by Bunwaree in the Social Fabric Study. 90
More research needs to be carried out on the specific causes of drop-outs in those areas.
Teachers in those areas should be sensitised and be given special training to firstly
understand the causes and nature of inequalities and their impact on the educational
process. Secondly they should be equipped to carry out remedial education in the very
deprived areas and maintain regular and efficient contact with parents and the local
community generally.
8.5.2 Access to Secondary School 91
A great deal of the tension that exists in the educational sector is connected with the
problem of access to what are perceived as good or ‘star’ secondary schools. Enrolment
rates drop from 100% in the primary sector to just above 50% in the secondary level, as a
result of the high drop out and failure rates at the end of the primary level. The causes of
this discrepancy is deeply rooted in the profound inequalities which persist in society
itself and the inability of the primary school system to overcome them. About 30,000
children compete for 4000 places in ‘good’ schools. Around 60% of them do not pass the
CPE exams. This explains the fierce level of competition and the tyranny of private
tuition in the final year of the primary level. This issue has become further complicated
by the decision to allow secondary level confessional schools, which at present benefit
from full State subsidy, to retain autonomy in the recruitment of their staff and with
respect to 50% of their intake. All other admissions to secondary schools are done strictly
on the basis of performance at the CPE level.
The language issue has also been another source of ethnic tension. Ranking is based on 4
main subjects at CPE level, namely English, French, Maths and Environmental Studies.
Oriental languages are taught but do not count for ranking purposes. There have been
pressures to include these languages among the subjects which are counted for ranking
purposes on the grounds that children of Asian origin have a disadvantage in French
compared to children of French/Creole descent who live in urban regions and are more
exposed to the French language. This issue has considerably embittered interethnic
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relations and as it is directly related to the problems of access to good secondary school,
it will only be completely resolved when there are enough secondary schools of good
standard all over the island.
It is to be noted that the kreol is the lingua franca of the great majority of children in the
country and bhojpuri for a substantial number of them in rural areas. These two
languages are not recognised as official languages although many teachers do in fact
make use of them in the classroom at the lower levels of the primary level. The
Government has been very cautious about the language issue and has preferred not to
have an explicit policy on the issue of language to be used as teaching medium leaving it
to the discretion of individual teachers. This absence of policy has serious pedagogical
and social implications specially in deprived areas where children do not have exposure
to any other languages and often have the misfortune of having teachers who for one
reason or another do not make use of this discretion judiciously in this particular setting.
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8.5.3 The Secondary Level
At the secondary level, there is a strong feeling that the educational system may be
outdated and not addressing the newly emerging needs of the country. The World Bank
commenting on training institutions in the public sector states that “ they tend to be
unresponsive to industrial needs, have outdated curricula and poor equipment and
teachers” compared to those in the private sector. It is imperative that research be carried
out in this area to determine the manpower requirements and training needs of the
country in the years to come.
Most important of all is the need to look into ways of encouraging critical and
independent thinking at all levels of the system and to adopt a participatory approach in
the learning process.
A marked disinterest in science subjects has been noted in the case of both girls and boys
but it is inevitably more marked among girls. Some of the more immediate causes of this
problem are linked to current opportunities on the labour market. The recent period of
industrialisation has created more opportunities in the fields of management and
computing than pure science. The same is true of humanities and social science subjects
such as sociology, psychology, literature and history.
The more deeply rooted causes of the low level of interest of girls in science subjects is
linked to the socialisation process in the home and later in the school, where science is
viewed as a male domain.
8.5.4 Technical and Vocational education
For a long time, vocational and technical education has remained at the margin of
mainstream academic educational stream. There is still a great deal of parental resistance
against technical and vocational education which is seen as the last resort for those who
have not made it in the normal academic streams. However, the recent rapid
industrialisation of the country may have led to some changes in attitude to technical
training being given that a much broader range of technical occupations have now
emerged in the labour market with relatively interesting wage rates. However it remains
true that technical education is still very much for those children who do not do well in
academic subjects.
The main responsibility for providing technical education devolves upon the IVTB
(Industrial and Vocational Training Board) which was set up in 1988 and at present
manages 18 centres for further technical education and training. In 1997, training in the
18 centres were provided to 1237 full time and 2781 part-time students, making a total of
4018. The entry requirement is a minimum of three years of secondary schooling.
Training is provided in 12 apprenticeable trades and 3 new trades in the Hotel Industry
which were approved in 1996. The IVTB has also the responsibility to register and
monitor the work and curriculum of private training institutions. Employers contribute a
106
monthly levy to the IVTB as their contribution to the training and in return the IVTB
offers grants to trainees of up to a maximum of 75% of the training cost of those
employed by those employers who are contributing the levy. As at 31 March 1998, 90
private training institutions were registered with the IVTB and the total number of
trainees was 16,208. 92
There is still much gender disparity in enrolment rates at the technical and pre-vocation
schools. The low presence of girls in those training schemes is rooted in the gender role
stereotypes which are transmitted during the socialisation process in the home and in
school later on. It is also often the case that young people and their parents are not aware
of all the training and employment opportunities. This is especially true in deprived areas
where there are higher drop out rates from school where there is an even greater need for
this kind of information.
8.5.5 Tertiary Level Education
The University of Mauritius was the only player in the field of tertiary education until
recently when Government decided to take vigorous steps to set up new tertiary level
institutions and encourage private initiatives in this field. In 1999, enrolment rate at
tertiary level, including distance education students and those studying overseas, was
12% of the population in the age group 19-24.93 Students attending tertiary institutions in
Mauritius (University, MIE, MGI, MCA) constituted half of that figure, i.e 6%. There is
increasing pressure of demand for places and clearly an inability of the tertiary sector to
meet demand locally. The University is presently launching a programme of
open/flexible learning courses leading to certificates and diplomas to be run after office
hours. A new University, the University of Technology is being set up. There are also
similar initiatives in the private sector.
The access problem is not related to the quality of output at secondary level, but rather to
the inability of the tertiary sector to meet demand. In fact it is often a source of very great
frustration that applicants with very good grades are unable to secure a place at the
University of Mauritius but are offered places in the most prestigious British or US
universities on the basis of their good performance.
Access to tertiary education is therefore very competitive as it is based strictly on a
performance-related point system and computerised ranking. As a result and being given
the present inequalities in the educational system, young people from deprived areas are
largely absent from the campus. Although there is no well established system of
affirmative action for deprived areas, admission regulations are relaxed in a few cases of
persons mainly from Rodrigues, in an effort to build capacity in the island. Gender
balance has been satisfactorily achieved, with some faculties moving close to having 50%
women. However the ratio of male to females in the Engineering Faculty in recent years
was 4:1.
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Some of major constraints to increasing access are the following:
•
•
•
•
Budgetary constraints. Tertiary education is free, and therefore the University is
unable to generate funds and relies almost completely on government grants which
are not being sufficiently increased to enable the necessary expansion for an increase
in intake.
Human resource scarcity in some academic disciplines
Unattractive salaries and working conditions for academics
Inadequate infra-structural facilities, buildings, libraries, equipment.
The University is presently engaged in launching a new programme of open/flexible
learning courses leading to certificates and diplomas to be run after office hours for those
already in employment or for women homemakers who may wish to pursue higher
studies or have some special interest in a particular field. The problem of transport is
however a major obstacle in the evenings as the campus is out of the way of the main bus
routes. There may be a case for decentralising the campus to open up opportunities for a
larger number of people.
Apart from the problem of access, the Unive rsity is often criticised for not responding
directly to the needs of the economy. Although it is accepted that the role of a University
cannot be solely oriented towards meeting the immediate manpower requirements of the
economy, strategic planning at the University cannot completely disregard the aspect of
‘employability’ of its graduates. But to pay too much attention to this aspect would also
turn the institution into ‘follower’ rather than a ‘leader’ and increase its vulnerability to
the vicissitudes of the economy. Secondly, technological change has become so rapid
and the direction of change so unpredictable that emphasis should be placed much more
on basic intellectual training to ensure greater flexibility and adaptability to changes in
the technical and economic environment.
Another major problem in this field is that training is a long-term process and requires
heavy initial investment. By the time a training plan is developed and the training process
implemented and completed, the development strategy may have changed with
completely new manpower requirements. A delicate balance must be maintained between
mere development and training of intellectual potential and giving people the appropriate
skills to meet certain specific needs of the economy at any point in time.
One of the complaints of employers who have recruited University of Mauritius
graduates is that even the ones who are academically very strong, lack a sense of
initiative and have to be closely guided and monitored. This difficulty to be independent
is closely related to the fact that there is no residential campus and students continue to
live at home and do not engage much into activities outside their study programmes. It
may also be related to the directive approach of teaching styles at primary and secondary
level as well as the close guidance and monitoring of private tuition which very few
children can escape in the present system.
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The Otto Essien programme of vacation work placement of University students, an
initiative of the UNDP, has proven to be very successful in providing students with some
exposure to the world of work, while they are still at the University. The University has
taken over the programme which is now known as the Student Work Experience
Programme.
A number of other tertiary level institutions, notably the Mauritius Institute of Education,
the Mahatma Gandhi Institute are engaged in higher education. Given the small size of
the island there should have been much more collaboration between those institutions
with regard to the use of expensive equipment, libraries and human resources. The
different institutions have unfortunately developed rather independently and this situation
does not seem to have improved very much with the setting up of the Tertiary Education
Commission which was to oversee and co-ordinate the activities of the different
institutions.
8.5.6 Adult education and life long learning
The MCA (Mauritius College of Education) and the University of Mauritius have been
developing distance education courses for the benefit of adults already in employment or
at home. As the requirements of the economy are changing so rapidly there is a need for
providing more facilities for in service training. Distance education also provides
opportunities for self-development.
New communications technologies have to be used for adult education especially to cater
for the special requirements of those who are unable to get time off from work. Longer
hours of work have significantly reduced access to those in employment and this problem
could be overcome through modern communication technologies.
Although a great deal of effort is being made to increase computer literacy, Mauritius has
a long way to go to emulate countries of South East Asia. It is important that all
categories of people, including women at home, the elderly and those living in deprived
and remote regions be given access to computer and Internet facilities. In this era of
globalisation, it is access to information which will be the crucial factor in the fight
against poverty, underdevelopment and exclusion.
8.6 KEY EDUCATION ISSUES FOR FUTURE INTERVENTION
1. Education inequalities are critical in generating and sustaining poverty and social
exclusion. It has been found that low educational achievement in childhood increases
the risks of marginalisation and exclusion in adult life. It is of paramount importance
that the profound causes of low performance and lack of motivation be studied more
closely. However it is important to realise that improving education will not
necessarily solve all the problems of the deprived. There is a need for complementary
measures such as the role and behaviour of potential employers in their hiring
decisions, access to information about employment opportunities and other support
systems. Specialised teacher training and parental sensitisation programmes to
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facilitate teacher-parent interaction also demand closer attention especially in the
context of primary education in deprived areas.
2. At secondary and tertiary level, there is a need to look into the causes of gender
disparity in student enrolment in science and technical subjects and generally at
career guidance right from the lower levels of secondary school.
3. In order to plan tertiary level education more effectively there is a need to study the
human resource requirement of the country in the years to come. However being
given the very rapid technology driven changes in production processes, school and
tertiary level curricula should contain the necessary flexibility to adapt to changes
over a short period of time. It is important also to create opportunities for
entrepreneurship training among the young to encourage self employment in the
informal sector of the economy with growing pressures on the public and parastatal
sectors of the economy to contract.
4. Adult education and life long learning must be further strengthened and new
communication techniques be explored to increase life long adult access to
educational opportunities.
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9.0 ENVIRONMENT
9.1 INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS
Mauritius has adhered to a number of International Instruments related to environmental
protection within the last decade. In fact between 1992 and 1996, Mauritius had signed
all the conventions covering biodiversity, climatic change and international waters, as
follows:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Convention on Fishing and Conservation of living resources of the high seas, 1958
(entry into force 4.11.70)
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (signed 10.6.92)
Convention on the Preservation of Biodiversity (ratified 4.9.92)
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (accession 18.8.92, entry in
force 16.11.92)
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (accession 18.8.92
entry into force 16.11.92)
London Agreement to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone
Layer. (accession 20.10.92)
Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes
and their Disposal (accession 24.11.92)
Copenhagen Amendment to the Montreal Protocol (ratified 30.11.93)
United Nations Global Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small Island
Developing States. 1994, Barbados.
Convention to Combat Droughts and Desertification (certified 11.1.96)
UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (ratified 4.11.94)
Convention on the Prevention of Pollution from ships of 1973, as modified by the
Protocol of 1978 (MARPOL) (entry into force 5.7.95)
9.2 GOVERNMENT S TRATEGIES AND POLICIES
In 1988, the first National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP 1) and the Environmental
Investment Program (EIP 1) were prepared and have been followed in the early 2000 by
the NEAP 2, where summary recommendations for EIP 2 for the next decade also are
provided. The NEAP 2 provides a national environmental diagnosis as well as an
environment related analysis of the following major sectors of the economy: industry,
tourism, energy, agriculture, environmental resources and transport. Both NEAP 2 94 and
EIP 2 have now been approved by Government.95
The National Environment Strategy for the next ten years can be summarised as follows:
To follow the principles of sustainable development by providing environmental services,
encouraging responsible environment practices and enforcing appropriate environmental
standards in order to safeguard health and welfare, conserve the country’s natural
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heritage, and enhance the quality of life of all the people of Mauritius. The six priority
projects within NEAP 2 are the following:
1. The restructuring of the Department of Environment
2. The development of an Environmental Information System
3. The development of Environmental Indicators
4. The identification and monitoring of sensitive high risk zones
5. To set up a framework for integrated coastal zone management.
6. To improve the management and monitoring of Industrial hotspots.
NEAP 1 paved the way for the comprehensive Environmental Protection Act (EPA) in
1991 which provided the Ministry of Environment, Human Resource Development and
Employment (MoE) with the legal framework for environmental protection of the whole
country. Prior to this, the responsibility for the protection of the environment was spread
across a number of different ministries and Government Departments. The EPA gave
overall responsibility for the protection of the environment to the MoE which, through
the Director of the Environment, exercises wide powers for environmental policy
implementation and law enforcement.
To ensure co-ordination and co-operation of environmental management among
enforcement agencies and other public departments dealing with environmental
protection, cross-sectoral bodies were established at several levels namely:
•
•
•
The National Environment Commission (NEC), a Cabinet level inter- ministerial
group chaired by the Prime Minister was established to consider and agree upon
national environmental policy and strategy. The NEC met for the first time in two
years on the 25/1/00, after a decision was taken that the Minister of Environment
should replace the Prime Minister as President of the Commission.
An inter-ministerial Environmental Co-ordination Committee (ECC) to be chaired by
the Permanent Secretary of the MoE, responsible for agreeing to a co-ordinated
response to implement the policies and strategies from the NEC.
The Environmental Advisory Council to provide a channel for comments and
suggestions on environmental policy and investment with members mainly from nongovernmental sectors.
The Environmental Protection Act (EPA) has already set some standards regarding noise,
water pollution and air pollution.
Mauritius has also participated actively in the follow up activities of the UNFCCC and
has attended, at ministerial level, the three Conference of Parties (COP) organised so far
in the context of this convention.
It should also be noted that the NEAP 2 pays special attention to the development of the
Island of Rodrigues, where environmental issues have their own specificities in a national
context. These will be elaborated upon later in this section.
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Mauritius is also a party to the East African Regional seas programme. It is playing an
important role in the safety of life and property at sea under the SOLAS Convention. It
has assumed responsibility for the preparation and issuance of weather and sea forecast as
scheduled broadcast through the Indian Ocean INMARSAT Satellite for the areas
bounded between the Equator and latitude 300 S and between longitude 55 0 E to 950 E
together with the area between the Equator and latitude 100 30’S and African coast to
longitude 550 E under the WMO/IMO Global Maritime Distress Safety System
(GMDSS).
9.3 ACTION PLANS FOLLOWING GLOBAL CONFERENCES
In response to the Rio conference and through the Global Environment Facility (GEF)
and its Enabling Activities Programme, UNEP helped fund the guidelines for preparing a
National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. A draft was finalised in November 1994.
However, no Action Plan has yet been finalised.
From August 1997 to September 1998, UNEP, through the GEF/Enabling Activities
Programme, provided Mauritius with financial and technical support to finalise the Initial
National Communication under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change.
With the support of UNEP/GEF, necessary steps have been taken with the relevant
authorities to activate the drafting of the Bill on the National Bio-safety Guidelines for
the Safe Development and Introduction of Genetically Modified Organisms in Mauritius.
The Mauritius Oceanographic Institute has recently been set up, under the Mauritius
Research Council, to collect information on the marine environment and its resources.
The obligations of the institute will not override, but rather complement, the duties of the
Ministry of Fisheries. The Institute was set up as a response to the national workshop of
the National Climate Committee, in November 1996.
As from 1999, the UNDP has been nominated the GEF field office by the Ministry of
Economic Development, Productivity and Regional Development, and has thus the
responsibility of disseminating information regarding the GEF at all levels.
The following National Environmental Standards that have already been promulgated:
Drinking Water (July 1996)
Noise (March 1997)
Treated wastewater for use in irrigation (Aug 1999)
Effluent limitations for the sugar industry (October 1999)
Air and Industrial Effluent Discharge Permit
Solid Wastes (non hazardous and hazardous)
Guidelines for Inland Surface Water, Coastal Ware Quality (April 1992), Irrigation Water
Quality (April 1999) have been published in the Government Gazette
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The following standards are under preparation:
• Standards for Effluent Discharge on Land, Underground and into Surface Water
Courses not meant for potable water supply.
• Standards for Effluent Discharge into the Ocean and Permissible Limits for Discharge
of Industrial Waste Water into Sewer Network
• Guidelines for Vehicle Emissions
With reference to the ISO 14000 family, the first Mauritian standards corresponding to
the ISO 14001, 14004, 14011 and 14012 have been published in the Government Gazette.
9.4 CONSTRAINTS TO IMPLEMENTATION OF STRATEGIES AND POLICIES ADHERING TO
INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS
One of the major constraints to effective implementation and progress has been, as
mentioned earlier, the fact that the NEC did not meet for two years. Dissemination and
communication, with a top-down approach, depends on this primary body and the
following observation was made in NEAP 2:
“the suspension of NEC meetings has reduced high level leverage to resolve coordination problems” (section 1.3.3 in the National Environmental Action Plan 2 pointing
out that there has not been a NEC meeting for two years)
Other constraints and impediments relevant to the environment are of a more institutional
nature namely lack of co-ordination and communication between Ministries, staffing
problems at the Ministry of Environment and the centralised top down approach to
decision making which inevitably leads to delays in decision making and implementation.
The NEAP 2 also mentions that standards set out by the EPA are in need of an update
whilst others need to be prepared. Other regulating laws and powers that impact on the
environment are also outdated or in need of consolidation.
National Biodiversity Strategies and a related Action Plan have become essential tools for
the implementation of a biodiversity programme. The failure to have produced such
documents from a draft in 1994 have maintained constraints.
A major constraint is now emerging as the result of the considerable reduction in funding
assistance. For example, development assistance to SIDS (Small Island Developing
States) has fallen from $2.36 billion in the 1994 to $1.96 billion in 1997.
9.5 IN DEPTH ANALYSIS UNDERLYING CAUSALITIES AND IDENTIFICATION OF KEY ISSUES
Mauritius, having signed the above conventions and agreements, does not al ck the will
nor the academic comprehension to address the problems concerning the national as well
as the international environment. However, there is a major weakness at the level of the
understanding of processes and organisational requirements for the successful
implementation of policies in this field.
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Another gap in development is the identification of Mauritius as a Small Island
Developing State (SIDS). Limited in size and with a vulnerable economy highly
dependent upon a narrow resource base, international trade and tourism, the country has
limited scope to influence the terms of its trade. Loss of trade preferences and declining
donor assistance (from e.g. the UNDP) may entail severe implications for the
development of such a state. SIDS argue tha t there should be a compensatory mechanism
in proportion to the extent of vulnerability due to e.g. climate change.
The declaration of Barbados reaffirmed that SIDS are particularly vulnerable to natural as
well as environmental disasters and have limited capacity to respond to such disasters.
While such states are among those that contribute the least to global climate change and
sea-level rise, they are among those which will suffer most from the adverse effects.
Limited fresh water resources, increasing amounts of waste and hazardous substances as
well as limited facilities for wastewater management are some of the critical issues for
small islands. This is particularly the case for low lying coral based islands, such as
Mauritius, where ground water supplies are limited and are protected only by a thin
permeable soil. Even where rainfall is abundant, access to clean water has been restricted
by the lack of adequate storage facilities.
There is great competition for land resources between the tourist sector, agricultural
activities and other land users. The same sectors are also the main economic operators of
the country and, at the same time together with industry, they are the primary polluters of
the marine environment.
The expansion of textile manufacturing has also led to environmental hazards through the
flow of effluents especially from dye houses into rivers. Government has given fiscal
incentives to concerned factories for the setting up of treatment plants and at the same
time strict norms are being set up for industrial effluents.
Coral sand has been one of the main aggregates used in the construction industry. It is
estimated that some 800,000 tons of sand are removed yearly from the lagoons and
quarries that are close to the beaches. Studies have been carried out on the possible
replacement of coral sand by crushed basalt with the intention of putting a complete ban
on the removal of sand from the sea by the year 2001. To this end, a phasing out
operation has already started with the collaboration of sand operators many of whom earn
their living from this activity.
9.5.1 Waste Water Disposal
Utilisation of a total of 850 Mm3 of water can be accounted for: municipal (155),
agricultural (460) and hydropower generation (235). Of the municipal demand for water,
approximately 3% is consumed by tourism and 5% by industry. 96
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Standards are being set for the discharge of different types of effluent into the sewerage
network, coastal areas, irrigation and running water systems. Hotels and ind ustries are
therefore required to treat wastewater before recycling or disposal.
Sewerage systems are confined to parts of the Port Louis and Plaines Wilhems districts
only, providing service to 18% of the population and 56% of industries. A National
Sewerage Master Plan (NSMP) 97 was prepared in 1994. Nine priority projects were
identified for a capital investment of Rs 7.3 billion over the period 1993-2013. There has
been considerable delay in implementation. Funding to the tune of Rs 5.2 billion has now
been secured. Many of the projects are still in the feasibility report or design phase.
However work has started or is about to start on two of them: Baie du Tombeau and
Montagne Jaquot.
9.5.2 Solid Waste Disposal
The collection and disposal of solid wastes from domestic use and industries is organised
by local authorities. In the case of certain industries, it is organised privately. Waste and
refuse are taken to dumping grounds some distance from built up areas and normally just
dumped in an open area. The pollution risks of these dumps are very high not only at the
level of the atmosphere but also as waste leachate runs into the aquifers or nearby streams
and rivers. Estimates of the quantity of solid wastes to be disposed everyday range
around 1000 tonnes. 98
The recycling of plastics, used oils, tyres, cotton fibres and paper for a small market like
Mauritius would not be a very viable operation, but some industries have already set up
small scale recycling plants for plastics, paper and re-treading plants for used tyres.
However, standards and legislation have yet to be worked out for the collection,
transportation, storage, processing, disposal and recycling of non- hazardous wastes. For
example, the increasing use of plastic bottles has greatly worsened the problem of waste.
Recovery of these bottles for eventual recycling locally or to be exported after shredding
has yet to be organised.
9.5.3 Transport and Energy
The number of registered vehicles has more than doubled over the past decade, being
107,513 in 1989 and 233,415 in 1999. The density of vehicles per kilometre of road
increased from 39 in 1980 to 68 and 114 in 1998. 99 About one third of the passengers
travel on the Curepipe to Port Louis corridor. Journey times have increased by about 50%
over the past five years. This constant increase in the number of vehicles has inevitably
led to higher levels of pollution due to vehicle emission and noise. Furthermore, there
have been recommendations that the public transport system, which consists of both
buses and taxis, should be strengthened and rationalised in order to reduce pollution
levels. Specific recommendations to have a special bus lane or a mass light railway
transit system between Curepipe and Port Louis have been proposed but this project has
not materialised yet.
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In 1998, transport used 32% of all energy used in the country. In 1998, all gasoline and
about 42 % of imported diesel was used in the transportation sector. 100 Several studies
have been carried out and recommendations made to make a start on the use of unleaded
petrol, but it is a matter of concern that these have unfortunately not been implemented
yet.
The total primary energy requirement of the country is met from imported fuels (around
70% and the remaining 30% from indigenous sources (hydro, bagasse, fire wood) In
1998, only 7.5% of the electricity requirement of the country was produced by hydro
power. Of the remaining 92.5% which was produced as thermal energy, only 14% was
produced from bagasse, the bulk being produced from imported diesel, fuel oil, kerosene
or coal. Therefore only about 21% of electricity produced comes from local renewable
sources, i.e hydro and bagasse. 101
However, although loan facilities and financial incentives are given for the use of solar
water heaters, their use has remained at a very low level.
9.5.4 The island of Rodrigues
The island faces many problems such as the lack of fresh water and soil erosion which
has greatly affected and is partly to blame for the steadily declining agricultural system.
Presently, about 18 run-on-river diversions, 18 springs and 13 boreholes provide the
sources for water supply, mainly for domestic purposes. It is estimated that about 4200
m³ of water are produced per day. Conveyance losses in the transmission and distribution
networks are estimated to be 50%, resulting to inadequate and irregular supply of water
to the population. The present potable water demand is estimated at 8300 m³ per day.
The shortage of water leads to the following interconnected problems:
(i)
Not enough safe drinking water.
(ii)
A low number of flushed toilets. Latrines are therefore in very poor sanitary
conditions, sometimes causing contamination of the scarce amount of running
water available.
Efforts have been made over the years to improve the collection and distribution of water
but this still remains the major problem on the island.
9.6 AREAS OF POSSIBLE INTERVENTION IN ENVIRONMENT
The main challenges that face Mauritius and where intervention would be essential in the
years to come are:
1. Pollution of the coastal area due to discharge of contaminated effluents and
contaminated stream and river water, coming from agricultural, industrial,
domestic and tourist activities.
2. Pollution of the aquifers and rivers by agrochemicals and industrial effluents.
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3. Solid waste disposal. A comprehensive plan to cover the whole of the island is
still not available. The increasing use of plastics is a real threat.
4. Sewerage. Again a comprehensive plan to cover the whole island is extremely
costly and probably not feasible.
5. Atmospheric pollution caused by an increasing fleet of vehicles and industries.
6. Increasing pressure for the release of agricultural land for residential or
commercial use
7. Soil erosion in Rodrigues
8. Further provision of safe drinking water in Rodrigues.
9.7 INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS FOR THE M ARITIME AND FISHERIES S ECTOR
The IMO is the UN system’s regulatory agency for the maritime sector, and its global
mandate is safer shipping and cleaner oceans, which is pursued by adopting international
maritime rules and standards that are then implemented and enforced by Governments in
the exercise of flag, port and coastal state jurisdiction.
IMO’s rules and standards are accepted by Governments and the global shipping
industry- which carries over 90% of the world’s trade- because they provide a single,
universal framework governing maritime operations.
Mauritius has so far ratified the following International IMO Conventions:
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The International Convention on Load Lines (Load Lines 66)
The International Convention on Facilitation of International Maritime Traffic(1967)
The International Convention on Tonnage measurement (Tonnage 69)
The International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue (SAR 79)
The International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for
Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage (Fund 71 and the Protocol 92)
The International Convention for Prevention of Collision at sea (COLREG 72)
The International Convention for the Prevention of pollution from ships (MARPOL
73/78)
International Convention on Safety of life at sea (SOLAS 74)
The International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (CLC
76/92)
The International Convention on Standard of Training Certification and Watch
keeping for seafarers (STCW 78)
The International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness Responses and Cooperation (OPRC 90)
The International Convention on Maritime Satellite Organisation (INMRSART
94/98)
The following conventions related to the protection of the fisheries sector have also been
signed:
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United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
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Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish
Stocks
Agreement to Promote Compliance with Internationa l Conservation and Management
Measures by Fishing Vessels on High Seas
Indian Ocean Tuna Commission
The FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries
9.8 GOVERNMENT AND UN INTERVENTION
Many countries especially developing ones cannot yet give full and complete effect to
these IMO’s instruments because of lack of human and institutional resources. Because
of this and as mandated by the Convention that created it, the organisation has established
an Integrated Technical Co-operation Programme (ITCP) the sole purpose of which is to
assist countries in building up their human and institutional capabilities for uniform and
effective compliance with the Organisation’s regulatory framework.
In accordance with the Needs Assessment report carried out by the IMO Regional
Coordinator for Eastern and Southern Africa, the Government of Mauritius is committed
to maintaining safer shipping and protection of the environment.
The GEF is the principal sponsor of a Regional Oil Spill Contingency Planning Project
for the protection of the environmental integrity of the coastal and marine ecosystems of
a large, biologically rich and relatively pristine part of the western Indian Ocean. The
project will achieve this objective by helping the small island states of Comoros,
Mauritius, Madagascar and Seychelles ratify and comply with the International
Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation (OPRC 90).
World Bank is implementing the project on behalf of the GEF and the Indian Ocean
Commission is the recip ient of the grant on behalf of the beneficiary countries. The
planning of the project started in late 1997. The project itself became ‘effective’ in March
1999, when the Project Implementation Plan (Phase I of the project) was approved.
9.9 AREAS OF INTERVENTION IN THE M ARITIME AND FISHERIES SECTOR
The following areas of concern for the maritime sector will have to be addressed in the
country in order to achieve the desired objectives:
Maritime Safety
It is government policy to ensure that the ship s calling at the port as well as those
registered in the country are in good condition and thus are not a threat to the
environment and the cargo carried as well as the crew. This will be achieved by:
1. long term training of ship surveyors/inspectors
2. short term courses for the retraining of serving surveyors
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Strengthening of maritime administration
3. train newly recruited maritime officers both women and men at WMU to be more
effective in their duties
4. participation at IMO short courses by the serving officers
Maritime Legislation
5. Technical assistance in drafting a new merchant shipping act to incorporate
ratified international convention and new developments in world shipping
6. Incorporate conditions of service for seamen in the new act and also regulations
for fishing vessels
7. Technical assistance in holding a national seminar on ratification of conventions
and national legislation
8. Resolve conflict between the Environment Act and the Merchant Shipping Act
especially on fines for polluters
9. Participation by at least two officials in a regional seminar on ratification of
conventions and national legislation
Maritime training
10. There has generally been a lack of training facilities in the maritime sector. The
only maritime related training facility has been in the fishing industry and even
here it has remained rather inadequate. The following will need to be undertaken:
11. Technical training on assessing the current level of training offered by the sea
training school and its compliance with STCW95
12. Technical assistance in retraining the trainers to be able to offer the courses in
accordance with the requirement of STCW95 and STCW95-F
13. Technical assistance for an evaluation study to establish possible upgrading of
the sea school and the possibility of relocating it to a more spacious area
14. Technical assistance to supply the necessary modern equipment to the school
Marine Pollution
Mauritius is on the route of very large crude oil carriers making the country
vulnerable to pollution by accidental oil spills from ships. In the area of marine
pollution, Mauritius is party to most of the international conventions related to control
of pollution by ship and other related activities, and recently ratified the 92 protocol
of the Fund Convention has not yet been ratified. The following steps should now be
taken:
15. Harmonisation of the various pieces of legislation
16. A study of the prevailing currents and the effect they would have in case of
marine pollution
17. The provision of technical assistance in updating the sensitive areas atlas prepared
in 1989
18. The provision of technical assistance in acquisition of oil spill response
equipment able to cover most of the ecologically sensitive areas
19. Technical assistance in implementation of MARPOL Convention
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10.0 FOOD SECURITY AND NUTRITION
10.1 INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS
The major goals of the World Food Summit held in Rome 1996 were the following:
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Eradication of hunger, food insecurity and malnutrition within a decade
Creation of general conditions for economic and social progress conducive to food
security
Eradication of poverty and access to adequate food
Sustainable increases in food production
Preparedness, prevention and response to food emergencies
Optimal investment in human resources, sustainable production capacity and rural
development
Promotion of trade where it contributes to food security
Full participation and empowerment of the population especially women
10.2 GOVERNMENT S TRATEGIES AND POLICIES
10.2.1 Agricultural Policies
Food security is not regarded as an issue in Maur itius in the same way as it is in certain
poor African or Asian countries with huge populations to feed. Mauritius has made the
necessary transition from an agricultural to an industrial economy in the 1980s and has
dramatically reduced its dependency on agricultural resources and employment.
Agriculture only represents 9% of GDP.
The island’s economy has a long history of dependence on a single export crop, namely
sugar. The price of this commodity has suffered wide fluctuations on the world market.
Sugar has remained central to the economy probably because of the guarantee of an
export market negotiated since the early 1950s, first through the Commonwealth Sugar
Agreement followed in 1974 by the Sugar Protocol attached to the Lomé Convention
which is an arrangement between the ACP country (Africa-Caribbean-Pacific) and the
European Union. The Sugar protocol guarantees a market for the bulk of the sugar
production and ensures price stability. Sugar plantations occupy around 90% of all
agricultural land of the island. A large part of the food requirements of the country, such
as flour, rice, edible oils, fish, meat and milk products are imported. However, the value
of agricultural exports, sugar, tea, some food crops and fish, by far exceed the value of
our food imports.
Various diversification plans have been introduced since 1982 to obviate potential
hazards of a monocrop economy. In 1995, the Agricultural Research and Extension Unit
(AREU) has been set up under the aegis of the Food and Agricultural Re search Council
to promote research and provide advisory services to farmers. An Agricultural Products
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Export Authority has been set up to promote exports of non-sugar products. Government
is also at present engaged in a major reform programme of the whole agricultural sector
and efforts are being made to modernise, through increasing efficiency and productive
capacity, the sugar industry. It is hoped that the average tonnage of 625,000 annually will
rise to 700,000 in the years to come.
There are some important irrigation projects which are aimed at extending the irrigation
network and improving the irrigation system in the North, East and West of the country.
The building of a large dam, the Midlands Dam and the rehabilitation of two major feeder
canals, by the year 2003 will bring an additional 5000 hectares of land under irrigation. It
is estimated that these improvements in irrigation will increase annual sugar production
from the present 625,000 to the targeted 700,000 tonnes and food-crop production form
100,000 tonnes to 150,000 tonnes. The FAO (with UNDP financial assistance) prepared a
10 year Development Plan for the fisheries sector for Government in 1998. The Ministry
of Fisheries and Co-operatives has since implemented 22 of the projects listed in the 10
year Plan.
The Ministry of Agriculture, Food Technology and Natural Resources is at present
finalising an Action Plan for Agriculture for the period 2000-2005. The main objectives
of Government agricultural policy are as follows:
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Increase food crop and livestock production. Maintain self sufficiency in fresh
vegetables, poultry and egg, fresh pork and increase self-sufficiency in certain
essential commodities like onions and re-establish self sufficiency for potatoes
Liberalise markets and support private sector development
Optimise the use of water resources through the introduction of improved and water
saving irrigation systems and increase in water storage capacity
Make optimal use of agricultural lands while maintaining annual sugar production
between 625,000-700,000 tonnes.
Diversify agricultural production for local consumption and export
Ensure national food security through the production of adequate supplies of basic
foodstuffs at competitive prices.
Intensify research and development activities
Extend agricultural production to the region through the establishment of strategic
alliances (eg. bilateral agreement between the Governments of Mauritius and
Mozambique)
Promote agro-based industries
Formulate an agricultural training policy
Ensure an adequate and regular supply of fish and fish products to meet domestic
needs and to generate surplus for export
Develop appropriate marketing strategies
Conserve/preserve the country’s natural base
Facilitate trade in food and agricultural products
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10.2.2 Incentives to increase agricultural production
In the agricultural sector, given that land area cannot be expected to expand substantially,
efforts are being directed towards increasing the productivity per unit area. Since the
sugar market, especially under the ACP-EU Special Preferential Sugar Agreement, will
be far better than that of tea in the years to come, the conversion of tea land into sugar
plantations is being encouraged with the introduction of incentives in the form of cash
grants, land preparation support and provision of road infrastructure.
Two ongoing schemes which have greatly contributed to an increase in productivity of
agricultural land are: The Prime Minister’s Derocking Scheme and the Irrigation Plans of
the Irrigation Authority.
Although these schemes were directed primarily to increasing the productivity of sugar
land in the West and the North, they will also benefit the food crops which are being
grown in those areas as these food crops are also grown as intercrops on sugar land. Both
schemes are highly subsidised by Government and in particular the Irrigation Network
and reservoirs that require very heavy investment Another initiative that will improve
management and productivity is the consolidation of small farmers’ plots into larger
units, known as LAMUs (Land Area Management Unit). LAMUs will reap economies of
scale and facilitate the collective use of logistics support form the Farmers Services
Centres. In order to encourage agricultural diversification special fiscal concessions are
given under the Agricultural Development Certificate Scheme. In 1990, this scheme was
modified so that those who produce for the export market become eligible for an even
greater range of incentives on similar lines as those in the exp ort manufacturing sector
(EPZ).
Today, loans are given on concessionary terms by the Development Bank of Mauritius
and the State Commercial Bank. Sugar cane growers obtain cuttings from the
Government nursery or the sugar estates at a price that is subsidised by Government,
whereas growers of potatoes and onions are provided seeds of reliable quality that are
also subsidised from the Agricultural Marketing Board, that also ensures the storage and
marketing of their produce.
Although farmers make probably too much use of pesticides in certain cases, one pest
which is proving very difficult to control is the fruit-fly which is harmful to a number of
fruit varieties as well as certain vegetables. Although there is a programme of eradication
both at the national and a regional level, the latter, supported by the Indian Ocean
Commission, those initiatives have not proved to be very effective so far. Certain fruits
have become very rare and may well disappear if more rigorous steps are not taken to
deal with the problem in a more radical manner.
Incentives to improve production in certain areas of the livestock sector are also not
proving to be very effective. Deer farming seems to be progressing satisfactorily, but a
constant and progressive decline has been noted in the production of beef, goat meat,
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mutton and milk. In a paper presented at the Workshop on Household Food Security in
December 1993102, it was estimated that in the year 2000, whereas Mauritius will be self
sufficient in pork and poultry, the self-sufficiency ratio for milk, beef, goat meat and
mutton will only be 12%, 12% and 4% respectively. In the fisheries sector, besides fiscal
and loan facilities to boats and equipment, fishermen are given an allowance on bad
weather days when they cannot go out at sea. They are also provided with life jackets to
increase their security at sea. Without these incentives, artisanal fishing may disappear
completely.
10.3 FOOD PRODUCTION
10.3.1 Food Production for Domestic Consumption103 and Imports104
The limited area available for agriculture leads to a very intensive form of cultivation
with heavy inputs in terms of fertilisers, pesticides and herbicides. The area under sugar
cane has now stabilised with land lost through conversion to residential or industrial us e
being compensated by the conversion of marginal land and a good part of land planted
under tea to sugar cropping. In 1994, there were 3,028 hectares under tea compared to
1,109 in 1996 and 688 in 1998. The reason for the decline in tea cultivation was the
difficulty of obtaining a good price for tea that was previously exported. Although some
tea is imported to satisfy consumer demand, most of the tea consumed is produced
locally.
In 1992, some 72000 tons of vegetables, pulse and fruits were produced. In 1997, the
figure rose to 100,817 tons but declined to 91,618 in 1998. However, there has been a
dramatic fall in the production of certain items between 1992 and 1998 namely maize
from 1995 tons to 260 tons and groundnuts from 1190 tons to 551 tons respectively.
Although Mauritius is close to self-sufficiency in vegetables, the country continues to
import some vegetables and quite a substantial proportion of its fruit requirements.
Between 1993 and 1998, the value of vegetable and fruit imports have gone up from Rs
470 million to Rs 850 million. In addition, animal and vegetable oils and fats to the value
of Rs 594 million were imported in 1998.
Flour and rice are the staple foods of Mauritians and in 1998, 63,000 tons of rice were
imported for a c.i.f value of Rs 556 million. In the same year, 19,000 tons of wheat flour
was imported and 123,000 tons of wheat was imported for flour production, mainly for
the local market, leaving a surplus production of 22,000 tons of this flour to be exported.
10.3.2 The Livestock Sector
In 1998, beef slaughtered at the Mauritius Meat Authority represented 2,516 tonnes of
carcass, out of which 2176 tonnes were from imported cattle. The share of imported live
cattle has been rising rapidly to reach 74.8% in 1996 and 86% in 1998. Moreover there is
an indication that breeding cattle for milk production is getting even more difficult. The
amount of milk produced locally has gone down steadily from 10.5 million litres in 1992
to 5.5 million litres in 1998. The import of “meat and meat preparations” in 1998 came
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up to Rs 733 million c.i.f, while that of “dairy products and bird’s eggs” stood at Rs
1.038 million c.i.f. In terms of weight both these items have each hovered around 18,000
tonnes over the past 5 years.
Goat and mutton imports reached 127 tonnes in 1997 while the amount of sheep meat
produced locally decreased from 17.5 tonnes in 1992 to 9.7 tonnes in 1995. The amount
of goat meat produced from locally bred animals was 84.8 tonnes in 1992 and has
gradually declined to 60.6 tonnes in 1995 whereas imports have expanded from 41.6 to
56.2 tonnes. The local breeding of goat and sheep has therefore decreased steadily
whereas that of beef cattle seems to have stagnated, with a production of less than 500
tonnes of carcasses. Non-ruminants, such as pigs and poultry, have reached self-sufficient
production levels. Production was, in 1997, 948 tonnes of pork and 20,825 tonnes of
poultry but these figures went down to 752 and 18,300 in 1998.
10.3.3 The Fisheries Sector
The Experimental station at the Albion Fisheries Research Centre is mainly involved in
research work to support fish production. The Centre also carries out marine shrimp
culture to produce post- larvae for the benefit of private farmers engaged in shrimp
production. A Marine Conservation Centre has also been built as an extension of the
Research Centre. It provides laboratory facilities for chemistry, bacteriology, ecology and
physical oceanography.
The main types of fishing in Mauritius are:
(a) Artisanal fishing in the lagoon and off- lagoon, including sport fishing and amateur
fishing. The total yield here is about 2500 tonnes every year
(b) Bank fishing (Saya de Malha and Nazareth banks, the Caragados Chagos Shoals, and
the Chagos banks. In 1995, there were 16 bank fishing vessels with a catch of 6700
tonnes which is considered to be the maximum sustainable yield for that type of
fishing.
(c) Industrial tuna fishing. Tuna production from the Mauritian owned purse seines
reached 9500 tonnes in 1992 but fell to 6700 tonnes in 1995.
The Tuna factory in Port Louis does not normally obtain enough tuna from local fishing.
For example in 1995, the factory had to resort to increased imports so that it could reach a
processing value of 21,711 tonnes most of it being sold on the European market.
Aquaculture produces marine shrimps, fresh water fish, fresh water prawn and fish in
barachois. This production has risen from 68 tonnes in 1991 to 162 tonnes in 1996.
TABLE 5 : FISHERIES STATISTICS 1992-1996
(wet weight equivalent in metric tons)
SOURCE
1992
1993
Coastal fishing
2725
2533
a
High seas
13677
16307
Barachois/Ponds
86
83
TOTAL
16488
18923
125
1994
2613
14678
135
17426
1995
2393
12618
170
15181
1996
2566
8280
164
11010
1998
2179
7656*
9835
* includes barachois/ponds
a
fishing from the banks and tuna fishing, including fish caught by foreign vessels.
SOURCE: Annual Digest of Statistics, 1996. CSO
Economic & Social Indicators, MEDRC, No 305, Sept 1999.
In a sense, Mauritius can be said to be self sufficient in the fisheries sector, since the
revenue from the export of fish and fish preparations almost matches the value of imports
of fish and fish preparations.
TABLE 6: VALUE OF FISH AND FISH PREPARATIONS
Year
Exports
Imports
1993
384
375
1994
514
488
(in Rs million)
1995
1996
640
719
635
755
1998
939
1129
SOURCE: Annual Digest of Statistics, 1996. CSO.
Economic and Social Indicators, MEPD No 298, June 1999.
10.4 M AJOR CONSTRAINTS AND DEVELOPMENT GAPS
10.4.1 Agricultural self-sufficiency
The food products about which it would be realistic to talk of self-sufficiency besides
sugar and tea are fish, pork and poultry. In reference to fish, there is some concern over
the year to year fluctuations in catches, which reached a peak of 18,923 tonnes in 1993,
then dropped to 11,010 tonnes in 1996, then increased to 12,361 tonnes in 1997 to finally
decrease to 9,835 tonnes in 1998. It has become necessary to investigate furt her fishing
possibilities in the banks and the high seas and there is also a need for higher levels of
investment and greater professionalism in this sector.
At the level of livestock and vegetable production, more vigorous measures can be taken
to increase production but it is unlikely that self-sufficiency can be attained in those
commodities. Food security at the national level depends on both local production and on
imports. Essential food items such as rice and flour, edible oils, pulses, meat and dairy
products are all imported.
Although export earnings on food items more than offset the import bill for food items,
the overall balance of trade situation is a matter of constant concern. The balance of
visible trade over the last five years has deteriorated from a negative value of Rs 6,797
million in 1993 to Rs 13,155 million in 1997 and Rs 10,177 million in 1998. However,
the overall balance of payment has been positive for 5 of the out of the 6 years. The
foreign exchange reserve which represents about 20 weeks of our import bill, has been
hovering around that value for some time after having been going up steadily over the
past couple of decades, in particular in the 1980s.
Flour and rice, the staple food of Mauritius, are quite heavily subsidised by Government.
The 1999-2000 Budget has earmarked a sum of Rs 355 million for this item. The
126
recurrent budget has also made a provision of Rs 55 million for incentives for agricultural
livestock and fruit production in addition to subsidies to various parastatal bodies. The
prices of some main food items are fixed and they include rice, flour, sugar, oil, onions
and bread.
The substantial depreciation of the rupee by some 48% against the pound sterling over
the past 5 years and around 42% against the dollar, has led to substantial price increases,
particularly of imported goods. In the face of such price increases and further
liberalisation of prices, the Government has recently passed a Consumer Protection Bill
through Parliament for greater control of prices.
10.4.2 Employment generation in agriculture
The Rome Declaration following the World Food Summit called for social and economic
policies that will promote full participation and empowerment of the population,
especially women, an equitable distribution of income, access to health care and
education, and opportunities for youth. The Declaration also called for employment
generation measures which would both reduce poverty levels and enhance food security
levels.
From a situation of mere fric tional unemployment a few years ago, the country is
beginning to experience the first signs of real unemployment. The share of employment
in agriculture has been declining very rapidly as the economy has moved towards exportoriented industrialisation. But this has not necessarily led to a decline in production
levels especially in sugar where there has been a reduction of the work force as a result of
mechanisation and rationalisation of production processes. The problem is more acute in
the vegetable and food sector where there are persistent complaints from producers that
they cannot find agricultural workers. There is an aversion to agricultural work which is
probably derived from a combination of factors such as low status attached to agricultural
work, present wage structures and the absence of any promotional career structure in
agriculture.
Much of the research work in the agricultural sector has for a long time been limited to
the sugar sector. The newly created Agricultural Research and Extension Unit has been
entrusted with the responsibility of carrying out research in the non-sugar sector.
Because of its geographic location and the varied climatic conditions, Mauritius can
produce a wide range of crops and livestock.
10.4.3 Health and Safe Nutrition Issues
Food security also means good nutritional status as pointed out at the World Food
Summit. In 1995, a survey on nutrition was carried out on children aged 0 to 7 years and
adults aged 25 to 50 years on the same lines as the one carried out in 1985. 105 A
comparison of the findings indicated a net improvement in the nutritional status of
children and adults. A National Plan of Action was adopted by Government earlier in
1994 that made a number of recommendations relating to breastfeeding practices,
127
anaemia and ways of improving nutritional standards generally. It also proposed the
setting up of a Nutritional Council by the Ministry of Health, which has not been
implemented yet.
It is a well-known fact that health problems of the adult population of Mauritius are
associated with high rates of diabetes and cardio- vascular diseases. Non-communicable
diseases can only be addressed properly with a preventive strategy rather than a curative
one. Healthy food habits right from childhood, would be one of the major elements of
such a strategy.
Rapid industrialisation has led to the expansion of a market for fast food, preserved and
frozen food. It has become important to regulate hygienic standards of such types of food
sold to the public. The new Food Act has been passed in January 2000 with that aim of
strengthening food safety and products control systems and educating people in the food
trade in appropriate food handling practices.
10.4.4 Occasional Food Shortage Problems
There is no real shortage of food in the country. Temporary shortages of imported
products due to a late order or late arrival of a ship do occur occasionally but do not last
long. The only shortage that may last for longer periods which can extend to 2 to 3
months is that of locally grown vegetables after a severe cyclone hits the country. Prices
generally soar over such periods of severe scarcity but go back to normal as soon as
production levels resume. The recent expansion of the agro-industrial sector that
produces canned or frozen foods has to some extent alleviated this problem of acute
shortage after cyclones.
The current drought, the worst that the country has known for the past century or so is a
subject of very great concern. It is very important that research be carried out on climatic
changes and their possible effects on the island in the years to come. Measures must be
taken to improve the water management system and to adopt water saving devices both at
the level of industries and households.
10.4.5 Women in agricultural activities
The problem of food security is more serious on the island of Rodrigues where a vicious
circle of deforestation, overgrazing, soil erosion, droughts and overfishing in the lagoons
has led to a fall in both agricultural output and in fish yield. The resulting fall in income
from agricultural activities led the government to provide relief work for men in labour
intensive public works. This disengaged men from peasant agricultural activities and
agricultural output decreased even more. As a result of this, women now constitute the
backbone of subsistence agriculture in Rodrigues. The continued engagement of women
in peasant farming activities has become even more important to maintain a certain level
of food security on the island.
128
Many women in Mauritius also are engaged in food production on a household level, for
instance in kitchen gardens. These activities should be promoted and given support as
these kitchen gardens provide an important source of household nutrition. There has also
been an increased desire on the part of many women to further expand into small- scale
poultry and livestock rearing for household purposes, as well as for local marketing.
Many of these activities are being supported by the Women’s Unit of AREU and the
Young Farmers Service Organisation in Belle Mare but require further efforts and
strengthening.
Although the female participation rate in the formal sector of agriculture has been
decreasing, a considerable number of women, especially in Rodrigues are still engaged in
important agricultural production activities. The role and importance of these women
engaged in this sector should be given more recognition and support. Women’s triple
burden must be recognised and addressed in order to increase efficiency in agricultural
production. Women peasants and fisherfolk face major obstacles such as lack of access to
technical know-how, credit facilities and to other support services at the level of their
household responsibilities. Extension services need to become gender sensitised in order
to integrate gender planning into agricultural and fisheries development. Also, there
should be increased support given to women who are interested in being involved in
agro-processing activities and marketing.
10.5 K EY ISSUES TO BE ADDRESSED IN FOOD S ECURITY AND NUTRITION
1. Water management and deforestation are two areas which should be very closely
monitored as it would seem that Mauritius may have already begun to suffer from
the effects of global warming.
2. The fisheries sector has very great potential to become an important economic
sector of the country in the years to come. It is therefore essential that there be
more clear conservation policies for lagoons as well as for the high seas. Effective
exploration and monitoring of the high seas can only be done through regional cooperation between the islands of the region. Regional co-operation would also
have the merit of enlarging markets and of allowing the pooling of necessary
resources such as fishing vessels, expensive detection equipment and highly
trained technicians. Aquaculture on land is another area which should be seriously
investigated.
3. Biotechnology was introduced in 1986 with the setting up of the first tissue
culture laboratory in Mauritius and this is another area which has great potential.
Plant tissue culture was introduced as part of the country strategy to increase crop
diversity and crop productivity in order to increase domestic food production. It is
now felt that there is a need to make an assessment of the present contribution of
biotechnology to agriculture, evaluate the priorities of the country and develop a
strategy on how best the targets can be achieved. The main areas of biotechnology
in Mauritius would be plant micro-propagation, diagnosis of plant diseases, crop
breeding, animal production and animal health, treatment/use of agricultural
wastes. It is felt that so far biotechnology has not produced the expected result on
129
agriculture due to a number of constraints, mainly financial and administrative.
There is a need for essential equipment as well as an appropriate infrastructure
compatible with active progress in biotechnology. There is also at present no clear
training strategy in this field. The establishment of a regional and international
biotechnology research network would be beneficial to Mauritius and other
countries of the region.
4. Genetic engineering, leading to the production of transgenic foods, has in recent
years been a matter of great concern to the Ministry of Agriculture. A global
approach has been adopted in this context and genetically engineered organisms
are assessed for their impacts not only on human health but also on the
environment and biodiversity. Some work has been achieved in this area and there
is now a need for the development of clear guidelines for evaluating transgenic
crops.
5. Local production of beef and milk accounts for less than 5% of total consumption
and for goat and mutton it is only 2%. There is a need to seriously rethink this
sector and ways must be found to increase the herd size, to encourage a new breed
of professional farmers, to improve quality of products at the same time as
rendering livestock farms that are environmentally friendly. Deer farming, which
will have important export potential once EU standards are met, must be further
developed.
6. There have been important developments in agro-industrial production, especially
with the new policy of delocalisation which has allowed strategic alliances with
certain countries of the region, notably Mozambique which may in the long run
represent important sources of primary agricultural produce for Mauritian agroindustries. Further developments would however require new improved
technologies for agricultural production and expertise in domestic and export
marketing.
7. Mauritius, being such a small island, is likely to only be able to develop its
agricultural sector through greater regional co-operation. Mauritius is a member
of the IOR, COMESA and of SADC. A bilateral agreement exists between
Mozambique and Mauritius which covers at present a Special Economic Zone
(SEZ) over an area of 100,000 hectares and the rehabilitation of two sugar estates.
There are possibilities now for the country to make use of resources of the region
to produce selected agricultural products for the Mauritian market. The
introduction of an appropriate legal framework as well as the harmonisation of
certain food and sanitation related existing laws and regulations would however
be necessary before these new developments can start.
8. Crop protection necessitates more research efforts. Pest and disease control is at
present considered to be one of the major problems encountered by planters. It is
essential that there be continuous monitoring and judicious use of pesticides,
fungicides, and weed killers, which are not detrimental to the environment.
130
9. Conservation of agricultural produce is a very important issue in a small island
with a small market. More effort should be directed to the introduction of more
cost-effective new technologies for the conservation of agricultural produce.
10. Finally training and capacity building in the field of agriculture has become
essential for the further development of this sector. A recent survey has shown
that 80% of the members of the farming community are above the age of 40 years
and a large proportion of them have studied only up to the primary level and have
never had any formal training in agriculture. Agricultural training and education
are presently being provided on a piecemeal basis by a number of institutions
including the Ministry of Education through the schools, the Mauritius Institute of
Education through teacher training, the University of Mauritius, the Mauritius
Sugar Research Institute, the Agricultural Research and Extension Unit, the
Farmers Services Centre, the Robert Antoine Sugar Industry Training Centre.
11. Although a great deal is being done, there is a serious lack of co-ordination and
clearly defined overall training strategy for this sector. There is at present no
provision for the training of young school leavers or school drop outs, or for adult
farmers except for occasional talks or lectures by the extension services. A
training needs analysis will have to be undertaken in order to identify and
prioritise the training needs especially of the non-sugar sector. Also, agricultural
services and training policies must take into account the special constraints and
needs of women farmers, especially small peasants, and women in Rodrigues who
are involved in the fisheries sector.
131
11. 0 CONCLUSION
Key Issues and Strategic Focus for the UN system
The aim of the CCA was to provide a holistic and analytical summary of the current level
of national development through a common set of indicators including basic
demographic, cultural, political and socio-economic information. These indicators have
been assessed in the light of the priorities and mandates of the UN system organisations
and the internationally-agreed goals set by the various world conferences held during the
1990s as well as with reference to existing national policy objectives of the country. It
has been impossible to present a thorough and complete analysis of the state of
development of Mauritius in a few chapters, given the complexity of the numerous issues
that have been addressed. The aim of the exercise was essentially to make an objective
assessment of progress achieved in the main socio-economic sectors and to identify areas
where more needs to be done. The major critical issues have been identified and analysed
and some suggestions made with regard to future government and international
organisation intervention.
From the overall country assessment, it is clearly apparent that Mauritius has moved a
long way from preoccupation about the satisfaction of lower le vel basic needs of the
population. The country is no longer engaged in a struggle against grinding poverty,
starvation, disease or human destruction resulting from armed conflict which continue to
plague so many countries of the world. The last few decades have seen a period of rapid
transition and dramatic structural transformation of the social fabric as well as significant
expansion of educational and occupational opportunities. Economic progress has brought
gains but there have been costs as well. For a number of reasons, some areas and some
groups have missed the fast train of economic development and have remained locked in
a vicious circle of poverty, low motivation and social exclusion. This uneven
development is a serious risk to the cohesion and stability of the social fabric of the
country. Health indicators also reveal some problem areas. The period of rapid
industrialisation coincided with reduced emphasis on preventive, community initiated and
community led health programmes as well as on health education programmes. The
period of economic boom and successful industrialisation seems to have encouraged
higher levels of individualism and undermined traditional channels of community
participation in public life through trade unions and political parties. These are essential
driving belts to channel any feelings of frustration or dissatisfaction and to transmit views
and feelings for effective social dialogue and for the consolidation of democracy.
Economic growth rates have slowed down and there have been some setbacks in the
recent years, namely, rising cost of labour, erosion in the protected international markets
due to increasing competition on the world market. At the level of education, although
enrolment rates continue to rise, there are still major problems of regional and gender
disparities. On the other hand, the mismatch between the content and level of education
and training and the needs of the economy will be one of the major difficulties which will
face the country in years to come as more highly educated young people remain excluded
132
from the labour market as a result of the slowing down of growth rates and inappropriate
training strategies. There is at the same time an urgent need for upgrading skills to meet
the challenges of globalisation and an increasingly competitive world market.
The assessment has shown that Government and International agencies have actively
been engaged in the formulation of policies and action programmes to meet the
commonly agreed objectives reached by the international community at global
conferences. However progress in some areas has been slow and there are important gaps
which have been highlighted and elaborated upon in the body of the report.
At a more general level, a major problem noted is that even if action has been taken in
certain areas and recommendations made, there has been hesitation to implement
recommendations either due to a lack of political will or difficulties in reaching national
consensus on some issues. Some notable examples can be found in the fields of
education and governance. A number of good reports with extremely useful
recommendations have remained locked in drawers for long periods of time.
The UN system should seriously consider ways and means of assisting government in
advocacy work to sensitise the population on controversial issues such as the
regionalisation in education, health and reproductive rights, governance and the
administration of law and order, human rights issues relating to women and children and
vulnerable groups. This will help the population to reflect upon certain of these issues
and make informed choices. Much of the resistance is sometimes based on lack of
information and comprehension of certain issue. National debates and a participatory
approach should be encouraged on some of these issues to facilitate dialogue and
eventual implementation of programmes.
The UN system in Mauritius has very limited capacity both at the level of funding and
human resources, to engage in major development projects but there are certain areas
where their intervention could have critical impact. UN agencies have been very active in
the fields of women and child rights, health and reproductive rights, education and the
environment. There is still a great deal of work to be done in those areas and UN support
should continue.
However some of the problems areas have become more acute and other new problems
have emerged requiring urgent attention, notably problems of poverty and social
exclusion of some regions, growing inequalities in educational opportunity, pressure on
health services, rising abortion rates, law and order issues, electoral reform, public
administration constraints, police and prison reforms, decentralisation and participatory
democracy. In depth analysis of some of these problems using the broader multidisciplinary and cross-sectoral approach to human centred development indicates that
many of them have cross-cutting causes and implications and can only be addressed with
greater inter-agency collaboration.
One very fitting example is the problem of educational inequality and low performance in
deprived areas. This problem has multi-dimensional causes, linked to a number of issues
133
related to poverty, health problems, environmental constraints, family problems such as
domestic violence and alcoholism, weak community networks leading to absence of
effective political participation, problems at the level of control agencies such as the
police and teachers, discrimination in the labour market etc. The issue of cultural
diversity and artistic creativity could also be added to the list of issues impacting on
social and educational inequalities. UNESCO has already been involved in some
programmes and could be integrated in this interagency collaboration. This is just one
good example to show the importance of interagency collaboration and common
programmes of action.
Another very important finding of the assessment is the problem of the scarcity of data on
certain issues, especially those related to poverty and inequalities. The absence of data in
such areas does not only make it difficult to formulate appropriate policies but it also
makes it difficult to achieve any consensus in the country on the issue. The problem of
social exclusion is an interesting case in point. Although some interesting research has
been carried out (mentioned in section dealing with Social Development), the lack of
reliable and detailed information on the extent and nature of the problem gives rise to
varying or indeed contradictory appreciation of the problem. The absence of reliable data
on this issue, which has ethnic undertones, continues to provoke considerable interethnic tension. It is urgent that more research be carried out on this problem and this is an
area where UN assistance can be valuable, both at the level of funding of research
projects and provision of technical assistance. There is a great number of other areas
where research is necessary and these have been covered in the specific sections of the
report. However there is an inevitable need for prioritising issues.
Governance is another priority area which should be supported as it is a fundamental for
creating proper conditions for the empowerment of weaker groups of the population,
namely women, the poor, the uneducat ed, the excluded, the marginalised, and victims of
discrimination. The section on Civil and Political Rights gives details of areas which
require urgent attention and these include the decentralisation of local government,
electoral reform, the introductio n of an Equal Opportunities Act, reorganisation of public
administration and the Police, and the liberalisation of broadcasting services.
Civil society will have to be an essential partner not only in the implementation of
strategies and programmes of action but should also be encouraged to participate in
policy formulation and decision making, especially with regard to issues of national
importance. The UN system can have a very important role in supporting and
empowering civil society to participate effectively. Advocacy programmes on certain
issues can be run with the collaboration of NGOs and civil society.
134
ANNEX 1
Methodology
The methodology used for the CCA consisted of a collection and an analysis of official
statistics and findings mainly from the following sources:
Reports of the Central Statistical Office (CSO)
Reports of the various Ministries and Governmental Departments
Studies carried out by organisations or individuals relating to various
economic aspects of the development process in Mauritius
Newspaper articles and comments
Academic books on development issues
socio-
A list of such publications and other written sources, can be found in the references.
A few key opinion leaders have also been consulted on specific issues.
There was no collection of primary data or field work involved in the exercise.
The assessment of the situation was based on existing sources and the author’s own
observations.
An analysis of the evolution and recent trends was also carried out and key areas of
concern were identified. Those key areas were also analysed into greater depth to
understand the structural basis of some of the problems facing the country for the
moment and the major challenges ahead.
The first draft of the CCA was circulated to all UN agencies at the end of September
1998. Comments were received from a number of representatives present and these were
incorporated as much as possible into the document.
There was a break in the process from the end of 1998 to October, as a substantive UN
representative had not been appointed. The process started again in October with the lead
Consultant Mrs Nababsing and Professor Nath engaged by UNDP to carry out the
economic analysis. This second exercise was also largely based on existing statistics,
survey findings and official reports.
The second draft of the CCA including the economics chapter, was circulated to UN
agencies based locally and in the region. A workshop was held in January to discuss the
report. A number of decisions were taken with respect to the formatting of the document
These are laid out in detail in the section describing the terms of reference.
Comments were sent to the consultant again and were incorporated in the final document
which was submitted to the UNDP on 15 March 2000.
The next stage would be the circulation of the document to Government Ministries and
Departments for their comments before engaging in the UNDAF exercise.
ANNEX 2
Contextual Indicators
Total Population (000)
Age Composition (%)
Under 15 years
(15-59) years
(60-64) years
65 years and above
Total Fertility Rate
Life Expectancy at Birth
Male
Female
Gross Domestic Product at market prices (Rs m)
GNP per capita Rs
(US $)
External debt % of GNP (Central Government)
Growth rate of GDP at factor cost (%)
Domestic Savings (% of GDP)
Inflation Rate
Share of exports in GDP (%)
% of Public Expenditure on Social Services
Foreign Direct Investment (million Rs)
(million US $)
* less than 1% of GDP
1990
1,058.8
1998
1,159.7
29.8
61.9
2.9
5.4
2.3
26.2
65.0
2.8
6.0
2.0
65.6
73.4
39,275
36,775
2,260
15.1
7.3
23.0
13.5
65.2
13.1
-
66.7
74.5
96,939
83,027
3,490
11.2
5.2
24.0
6.8
66.8
20.6
900*
38
Common Country Assessment Indicators
Conference Indicators
CONFERENCE GOAL
INCOME-POVERTY
Reduced poverty levels
TARGET
INDICATORS
(Disaggregated by sex)
Proportion
in % of total income
extreme poverty in going to
1990 reduced by ½
in 2015 (WSSD)
lowest
20%
households
highest
20%
households
ratio of highest
20% to lowest
20%
FOOD SECURITY AND NUTRITION
Improved child nutrition
Severe/moderate malnutrition
among children<5 ½ of 1990
level
by
2000
(WSSD/FWCW/WSC/WFS)
Increased food security
Reduce number of chronically
under-nourished by half by 2015
(WFS)
HEALTH AND MORTALITY
Improved Health Care
Universal accessibility of primary
health care (ICPD/WSSD/FWCW)
Reduction in levels of Universal access to RH
HIV/Aids
services and information
by 2015(ICPD)
Reduced infant mortality
Reduced child mortality
86/87
91/92
96/97
5.6
6.4
5.9
44.2
43.5
46.2
7.9
6.8
7.8
Survey of 0-7 years old
suffering from malnutrition
1985: 24%
1995: 16.6%
Daily per capita intake of
calorie in 1996: 2952
% of household income spent
on
food for the poorest quintile:
58.5%
Already achieved
Cases of aids 95 96 97 98
Male
20 15 22 19
Female
7
9
6 10
Reduction of IMR by 1/3 of 1990
IMR has ranged between 18-22
level and below 35 by 1,000
from 90-98. The target of 12 for
by 2015 (ICPD/WSSD/WCW/WSC) the year 2000 will not be achieved
MR at ages <5 reduced by 2/3 of MR has stagnated between 20 -22
1990
from 1990-98. The desired target
level by 2015(ICPD/WSC)
will
not be achieved in 2000
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
Improved maternal health Reduction by ½ of 1990 levels
and
reduced
maternal by year 2000 and a further ½ by
mortality
2015
(ICPD/WSSD/FWCW/WSC)
Increased access to
family planning
Universal access to safe/reliable Contraceptive prevalence rate
contraceptive methods (ICPD)
Survey findings of women of 15-44
age
in a union using contraceptives:
1985: 80% 1991: 75%
CHILD HEALTH AND WELFARE
Improved
child Universal immunization
health
against measles (WSC)
Reduced
labour
Maternal mortality rate
per 1000 live births
1990: 0.69
1998:0.21
____________________________
___________
% of birth attended by skilled
health
personnel: 98.5 % in 1998
child Elimination
labour
(WSSD)
of
% of babies immunized
against measles
(public services only)
child Activity rate(%)
(2-14 years)
Male
Female
1993 : 83.5
1998: 84.6
1990
1995
1998
11.2
3.4
6.8
2.3
5.1
2.0
EDUCATION
Increased access to basic Universal
access
and 100% attendance at primary level for
education
completion of primary
both males and females.
education
by
2015
(EFA/WCW/WSC/ICPD)
% of pupils who start standard 1 and reach
standard 6 : 99.8%
Increased literacy
Adult illiteracy reduced by
Adult literacy rate- 1997: 93%
1990 level by 2000
(EFA/WSSD/WCW)
GENDER EQUALITY AND WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT
Gender Equality in Eliminate disparity in No gender disparity in enrolment Pass
Rates
education
primary and secondary rates
CPE(1998)
education
by
2005 Primary (6-11) 100%
Boys: 59.9%
(ICPD/WSSD/FWCF)
Secondary(12-19) 58%
Girls : 69.3%
Technical
and
vocational School Certificate
education
Boys: 77.1%
(1997)
Girls :77.7%
Males: 17,429
Females: 6.033
Gender Equality in Eliminate discriminatory Female activity rate: 1990: 34.7 1997:38.7%
employment
practices in employment Percentage of women in higher public sector
(FWCW)
administrative positions
1990: 26.5%
1995: 28.1%
Median salary
1995
1996
Male
Rs 3,500 5,611
Women
Rs 2,300 3,250
Women’s
Equitable access to
%of female
1983 1987
1991
1995
Political
political institutions
members
Empowerment
(FWCW)
elected :
3.2
6.5
3.2
9.7
Parliament
5.6
6.3
5.6
8.7
Municipality
1.9
1.5
1.0
2.8
Village Council
EMPLOYMENT AND SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOOD
Creation of full Universal access to paid
employment
employment (WSSD)
Full employment achieved in the 1980s.
Unemployment level has reached 6% in 1997 with
higher incidence among women.
(13,100 males and 16,700 females) CSO
HOUSING AND BASIC HOUSEHOLD AMENITIES AND FACILITIES
Adequate shelter for
Provision of sufficient living
1983
All
space and avoidance of 1990
overcrowding
Number of persons per room or
(habitat II)
average floor areas per person 1.5
Improved access to Universal access to safe
safe drinking water
drinking water; Full coverage of % of population with
drinking water supply
access to piped water
(by
2025)
(WCW/WSSD/UNCED)
1983
96.9
1.2
1990
95.2
(WCW/WSSD/UNCED)
Improved access to Universal sanitary waste
safe sanitation
disposal
(WCW/WCS/WSSD/UNCED)
ENVIRONMENT
Improved
Clean and healthy environment
environment
and
reversal of current
trends in loss of environmental
resources (UNCED)
Toilet
of which flush toilet
62.8
The Ministry of Environment is monitoring
economic activities and setting standards to
eventually ensure that there is no further
degradation
of the environment. A Waster Water Authority and
A Solid Waste Management Unit have been set up.
Carbon dioxide emissions per capita in 1.5
metric tons
Traditional fuel consumption as % of total
1980: 44%
1995: 38%
Average annual rate of deforestation (%)
1980-90: 1.2% 1990-1995: 0%
Arable land per capita: 0.08 hectare
DRUG CONTROL AND CRIME PREVENTION
Improved drug control
Measurable results in reducing
cultivation, manufacture, trafficking
and abuse of illicit drugs by 2008
(UNAD)
Improved crime prevention
1983
1990
98.0
99.3
47.5
Eliminate/significantly reduce
violence and crime(UNCPCTO)
Drug crimes per 100,000
inhabitants in
1994: 168.3
INTERNATIONAL LEGAL COMMITMENTS FOR HUMAN RIGHTS
Universal ratification of Acceding to all international
Section of the CCA on Human Rights
international human
human rights instruments and
lists
rights instruments
avoiding
the
resort
to all the International Treaty Obligations
reservations, as far as possible.
that
Mauritius is a party to.
The Protection of Human Rights Act has
been
passed to make provision for the setting
up of a
National Human Rights Commission.
DEMOCRARY AND PARTICIPATION
Strengthened democratic
Free and fair elections and Elections have been regularly held except
institutions and popular
democratic government
for the few years of the 1970s during the
participation
(WCHR)
State of Emergency
There have been some complaints about
the absence of free and fair elections for
the last general elections. There are some
court cases against electoral bribery.
The Constitution guarantees freedom of
expression, association and assembly.
The Public Gathering Act contains certain
restrictions to freedom to assembly. The
IRA makes strikes virtually illegal.
ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE
Fair administration of Effective legislative framework,
Justice
law enforcement, prosecutions,
legal
profession and fair trials in
conformity
with international standards.
Improved framework Existence of legal remedies in
of
conformity
with
international
remedies
standards
The Mackay Report has just been
submitted
with a number of recommendations to
reform the Judiciary.
The is a right of appeal against any
decision
even that of the Supreme Court which
goes
to the Privy Council.
ANNEX 3
Terms of Reference
Common Country Assessment
Background
As part of the strive towards harmonisation of the programme cycles of the individual
organisations within the Joint Consultative Group on Policy (JCGP), it has been decided
to compile a Common country Assessment, hereafter referred to as CCA. The CCA
serves as the stepping stone for the preparation of the UNDAF. In addition, the CCA
provides input to individual mid-review of the involved UN organisations.
The aim of the exercise is to provide a status of national development based on the
compilation and review of a common set of indicators reflecting the priorities and
mandates of the United Nations system, linked to internationally agreed goals set by the
various world conferences held in the 1990s.
The System of the United Nations had hired the services of Mrs Vidula Nababsing, Dean
of the Faculty of Social Studies and Humanities at the University of Mauritius, from
April 1998 for a period of 4 months. A draft report of the CCA was produced in October
1998. However, the then Officer- in-Charge during that period, had requested to wait for
the arrival of the new Resident Representative, for the finalisation of the CCA.
The first draft of the CCA which was submitted in December 1999 was based on the
General Terms of Reference of the CCA where are as follows:
1. An assessment of key development issues and the status of the co-ordinated
follow-up to UN conferences and of the implementation of UN conventions and
declarations, with a focus on the crosscutting themes. This should also include a
summary of the main findings of the assessment, and an analysis of demographic,
socio-economic and political development trends, as well as an indication of the
geographical incidence of poverty and vulnerability.
2. An in-depth analysis of key areas emerging from the assessment
3. Main conclusions, including a set of key issues which could provide a basis for
determining the strategic focus of the United Nations system and the CCA
partners for support and advocacy. These priorities should reflect the relevance of
crosscutting issues and where possible, be specified in a gender-sensitive way.
The CCA allows for the identification of baseline data on the key issues including
vulnerability analysis.
4. Data for the CCA indicators, including information showing where the countries
stand on the key indicators that correspond to the international conference and
convention goals, as well as additional country-relevant indicators and
information relating to national priorities and needs. This information is provided
both in the annexes and the body of the Report.
The CCA draft was circulated to UN agencies in December 1999 for comments. A
CCA/UNDAF workshop was held on January 2000 with local UN agencies and those of
the region, to finalise the CCA and define the role of Government in the CCA/UNDAF.
Suggestions were made by several agencies to review the format of the CCA to facilitate
future UN intervention. This gave rise to the country specific terms of reference for the
Mauritius CCA. The following decision was taken with regard to the Structure of
Chapters:
Each chapter would be directly based on the Mauritian acceptance of recommendations
of international conferences and declarations and ratified covenants, conventions and
treaties. Each chapter would be formatted as follows:
1. Description of all related international instruments adhered to by Mauritius
(Conventions ratified, laws passed, treaties signed, conference recommendations
accepted etc)
2. Description of Government strategies and policies responding to international
instruments
3. Interventions/Actions taken by government, UN and other partners (bilateral and
multilateral) to formulate and implement strategies and policies
4. Issues and obstacles which hinder Mauritius from successful formulation or
implementation of strategies and policies supporting international instruments
5. An in depth analysis of the sector including underlying causalities and
identification of development gaps based on the interventions described in section
3 and 4
6. Key issues which emerge as salient to the development of Mauritius. These
should include all potential areas of intervention so as to open the door for
government, UN and bilateral discussions for new development interventions.
The key issues should be Mauritius specific and forward looking in order for new
development strategies to be articulated in the UNDAF.
7. Each chapter should be 5-10 pages maximum
8. Each chapter will include relevant issues related to gender, specificities of
Rodrigues island, cultural diversity and human rights.
9. Each chapter will use CSO statistics and all other data sources will be noted
including data from fisheries, health etc.
10. Each chapter will complete footnotes and end notes to ensure ease of reference
including web site locators
11. Each chapter should include comments received from all the agencies
1
The World Conferences: Development Priorities of the 21 st Century (UN Briefing Papers) 1997.
Report on the Needs Assessment Mission to the Republic of Mauritius, 27 Nov-6 Dec 1996, UN High
Commission, Centre for Human Rights
3
Report of the Presidential Commission : To Examine and Report upon the Structure and Operation of the
Judicial System and Legal Professions of Mauritius. 1998 (President: Lord Mackay of Clashfern)
4
Human Development Report, UNDP, 1999.
5 MEPD Economic Indicators, 1997
2
6
Ministry of Economic Development Web Site.
Meade, James et al (1961) The Economic and Social Structure of Mauritius., Methuen, London.
8
UN Resource Mobilisation Target Table for Mauritius, 1997-1999.
9
Lall, S and Wignaraja, G (1998) Mauritius: Dynamising Esport Competitiveness. Commonwealth
Secretariat, London.
10
Milner,C and MsKay, A (1996) Real Exchange Rate Measures of Trade Liberalisation: Some Evidence
from Mauritius. Jou rnal of African Economies, 5 (1)
11
Imani Report (1999) Study on Implications SADC, Government of Mauritius, Port Louis.
12
Lall and Wignara (op. cit)
13
Vision 2020 (National Long Term Perspective Study, 1997) MEDRC, Port Louis.
14
Les Etats Generaux du Social, Minister of Social Security and National Solidarity, May 1996.
15
Etude Pluridisciplinaire sur l’Exclusion a Maurice, Final Report commissioned by the President of the
Republic, State House, Reduit. 1997.
16
Lau Thi Keng, Etudes sur l’accessibilité aux services sociaux. Analysis Research Consultants, Mauritius.
17
Social Fabric Study: Phase II. Mauritius Research Council,1999.
18
Report on Housing Estates in the Sugar Industry. Mauritius Sugar Authority. Phase I (1990). Phase
II(1996)
19
Population Ageing and the Elderly, Economic and Social Indicators No 299, (CSO) June 1999
20
Les Assises sur la Toxicomanie, June 1996, Ministry of Social Security and National Solidarity.
21
Poverty in Mauritius, Appavoo Associates, Mauritius 1997
22
Social Fabric Study (Phase II) see end note 18.
23
See end note 16.
24
Commission Justice et Paix 1994, Diocese de Port Louis.
25
See end note 18
26
Seen end note 17
27
see end note 22
28
Sen, Amrtya 1992, Inequality Re-examined. Clarendon Press. Oxford.
29
See end note 8.
30
See end note 25
31
see end note 22
32
Household Budget Survey, CSO, 1996-97
33
see note 16
34
see note 16
35
Micro Finance and Anti Poverty Strategies . A donor perspective. A UNCDF working paper. 1997,
UNDP. New York.
36
Pulley, R.V (1989) Making the Poor Creditworthy.: A Case Study of the Integrated Development
Programme of India., Wold Bank Discussion Paper, 58.Washington DC.
37
See table 3.
38
See end note 3.
39
Report of the Commission on Regional Administration (Chariman: V. Sooben) September 1997.
40
The Reform of the Civil Service. Report of the Standing Committee (Chairman: D. Burrenchobay)
March 1999.
41
see end note 3
42
see end note 3
43
Health Statistics Annual, 1998. Ministry of Health and Quality of Life.
44
SSR Medical Centre, University of Mauritius. February 2000.
45
A Survey on the Nutritional Status of Pre-school children in Mauritius. MOH/UNICEF, 1985.
46
A Survey on Nutrition in Mauritius and Rodrigues. MOH/UNICEF/WHO. December 1995.
47
All information relating to population have been obtained from the Family Planning and Demography
Yearbook 1998, Ministry of Health. Information on aging population is from source mentioned in
endnote 20.
48
See endnote above (48)
49
Contraceptive Prevalence Survey. Ministry of Health, 1985.
7
50
Contraceptive Prevalence Survey, MOH/University of Mauritius/Centre for Disease Control(USA)March
1992.
51
See endnote 48.
52
Ibid
53
see endnote 44
54
Digest of Vital and Health Statistics, Island of Rodrigues, 1998. MOH.
55
HIV/AIDS Unit, January 2000, Ministry of Health.
56
Young Women, Work and Aids Related Risk Behaviour in Mauritius, 1994. International Centre for
Research on Women. (University of Connecticut/MFPA/University of Mauritius)
57
National Gender Action Plan 1999, MWFWCD
58
Directory of Women Entrepreneurs 1998, MWFWCD.
59
Personal communication from Mary Francois, National Expert, UNDP/ILO Fight Against Exclusion
Project in Rodrigues.
60
See end note 4
61
Labour Force, Employment and Unemployment 1998, Economic and Social Indicators, No 288,
February 1999, CSO.
62
Health, Nutrition and Productivity among EPZ workers. University of Mauritius 1988
63
Labour Force Sample Survey 1995, Economic and Social Indicators, No 241, January 1997,CSO.
64
See endnote 33.
65
Labour Force, Employment and Unemployment 1997, Economic and Social Indicators, No 26 5,
February 1998, CSO.
66
See endnote 58
67
see endnote 59.
68
Statistical Profile on Women 1999, MWFWCD.
69
See endnote 48
70
see endnote 44
71
Mauritius Non-Communicable Disease Survey 1998, MOH. (published in January 1999)
72
see endnote 58.
73
See endnote 50,51
74
see endnote 48
75
see endnote 44
76
The Use of Induced Abortion in Mauritius. Mauritius Family Planning Association, July 1993.
77
Profile of villages in Rodrigues Island, Rodrigues Council of Social Services, December 1996.
78
See endnote 18.
79
Bunwaree, S 1998 Equality of Opportunity- a myth in Mauritian education.
80
National Programme of Action for the Survival, Development and Protection of Children, MWFWCD
June 1994.
81
Hayden, J Foster care in Mauritius, December 1999.
82
Master Plan for the Year 2000. Ministry of Education, Arts and Culture, June 1991.
83
White Paper on Pre-Primary, Primary and Secondary Education. Ministry of Education and Human
Resource Development, September 1997.
84
Mauritius Economic Review 1992-1995, MEPD.
85
Juvenile Justice Admin istration in Mauritius, 26 May 1999.
86
See end note 44
87
see endnotes 46,46.
88
Action Plan for a New Education System in Mauritius, Ministry of Education and Human Resource
Development. March 1998.
89
Information in this section has been obtained from the following Reports: (i) Report on Country Level
Support to ‘Education for All’, UNDP Office March 1997.(2) UNDP Education Project Part One: Pre Primary, Primary and Secondary Education (3) UNDP Education Project Part Two: Tertiary Education and
Training, UNDP April 1998.
90
See endnote 18.
91
Education Statistics 1998, Social and Economic Indicators No 292, April 1999. CSO.
Education Statistics 1999, Social and Economic Indicators No 311, November 1999, CSO
92
Ibid.
93
Participation in Tertiary Education. Tert iary Education Commission. 1999.
National Environmental Strategies for the Republic of Mauritius: National Environmental Action Plan
for the Next Decade (NEAP 2). Environmental Resource Management (ERM, London) July 1999.
95
National Environmental Strategies for the Republic of Mauritius: Environmental Investment
Programme.(EIP) (Appendix to NEAP 2) Environmental Resource Management, July 1999.
96
See endnote 93.
97
The Sewerage Master Plan for the islands of Mauritius and Rodrigues, 1994. Ministry of Energy, Water
Resources and Postal Services.
98
NEAP 2 (see note 93)
99
Digest of Road Transport and Accident Statistics 1999, CSO
100
Energy Statistics 1990 -98. Economic and Social Indicators, No 312. December 1999, CSO.
101
Ibid
102
Workshop on Household Food Security. Food Policy Unit of the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural
Resources, Reduit 1993.
103
All information related to local food production has been obtained from : Agricultural and Fish
Production 1998, Economic and Social Indicators, No 98, June 1999, CSO)
104
All figures relating to export and import of food products have been obtained from : External Trade,
1998, Economic and Social Indicators, No 290. April 1999, CSO.
105
See endnotes 46 and 47.
94