Clinical Problems in the Postanesthesia Recovery Room (PACU) Heidi Eriksson, MD, PhD Helsinki University Central Hospital Finland Recovery room incidents: a review of 419 reports from the Anaesthetic Incident Monitoring Study (AIMS) Kluger and Bullock Anaesthesia 2002 • The Australian incident monitoring study (Anesthesia and Intensive Care 1993) – incident reporting study – voluntary, self-reporting audit of actua/potential incidents that occur during anesthesia • 8372 reports , 478´(18%) in PACU Recovery room incidents: a review of 419 reports from the Anaesthetic Incident Monitoring Study (AIMS) • 92 % in adults • 90 % during daytime hours • 4 % at night Kluger and Bullock. Anaesthesia 2002 Factors influencing stay in the postanesthesia care unit Seago J et al. J Clin Anaesth 1998 • Patient history and age were not predictive! • Postoperative pulmonary/airway problems – desaturation, stridor, obstruction • Postoperative cardiovascular problems – hypo/hypertension, chest pain/ECG changes, pulmonary oedema/HF • Length of surgery • Unexplained - due to organizational factors ?? American Society of AnesthesiologistsPhysical Status Classification (ASA-PS) • is not an indicator of perioperative risk – Perioperative risk » preoperative medical status » nature on the anesthetic technique » nature of the surgical procedure low risk- intermediate risk- high risk • does not take into account • age • complexity of the operation • is a measure of preoperative medical status Preoperative assessment Type of procedure & recovery room incidents reported to AIMS General surgery Orthopedics Ear, nose and throat Opthalmology Gynecology Urology Vascular Dental and maxillofacial Plastic Cardiothoracic Obstetric Electroconvulsive Neurosurgery Pain block Radiology Vascular access 118 72 42 33 30 28 25 14 12 12 10 6 5 2 1 28 % 17 % 10 % 8% 7% 7% 6% 3% 3% 3% 2% 1% 1% 0.5 % 0.2 % 1 0.2 % Kluger and Bullock. Anaesthesia 2002 Primary presenting problem & recovery room incidents reported to AIMS Cardiovascular Respiratory Airway Drug error CNS Equipment Communication problems Hypotermia Regional block problems Inadequate documentation Hyperthermia Trauma Dental problems Renal Skin Blood transfusion Facility limitations Gastrointestinal problems 99 97 86 44 32 27 7 6 4 4 3 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 24 % 25 % 21 % 11 % 8% 6% 2% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 0.5 % 0.2 % 0.2 % 0.2 % 0.2 % 0.2 % Kluger and Bullock. Anaesthesia 2002 Presenting problem in 99 cardiovascular incidents out of 419 PACU incidents reported to AIMS Pulmonary oedema Hypotension Cardiac arrest Bradycardia Myocardial ischemia Tachycardia Bleeding Hypertension Allergy Radial artery ischemia 29 26 20 7 7 4 2 2 1 1 7% 6% 5% 2% 2% 1% 0.5 % 0.5 % 0.2 % 0.2 % Kluger and Bullock. Anaesthesia 2002 Hypotension in PACU Quick assessment • decreased ventricular preload – hypovolaemia – postoperative bleeding • reduced myocardial contractility – myocardial ischemia – congestive heart failure • reduction of systemic vascular resistance – septicaemia – regional anesthesia/analgesia – anaphylaxis Hypertension in PACU Quick assessment • • • • pain hypoxia hypercapnia anxiety/agitation • fluid overload – developing pulmonary oedema • urinary retention • untreated hypertension Heart rhytm abnormalities in PACU Quick assessment • • • • pain hypoxia hypercapnia hypovolaemia/hypervolaemia • electrolyte inbalance • metabolic acidosis • pre-existing heart disease • myocardial ischemia Presenting problem in 97 respiratory incidents out of 419 PACU incidents reported to AIMS Respiratory failure: inadequate oxygenation/ventilation Aspiraton Respiratory arrest Bronchospasm Pneumothorax 74 7 6 5 5 18 % 2% 1% 1% 1% Kluger and Bullock. Anaesthesia 2002 Presenting problem in 97 airway incidents out of 419 PACU incidents reported to AIMS Airway obstruction Laryngospasm Jaw dislocation Foreign body (throat pack) Failed extubation Endobronchial intubation 59 18 2 2 1 1 14 % 4% 0.5 % 0.5 % 0.2 % 0.2 % Kluger and Bullock. Anaesthesia 2002 Desaturation in PACU Quick assessment • • • • • • airway obstruction laryngeal spasm bronchospasm hypoventilation obesity perfusion-ventilation – atelectasis – pulmonary oedema – pneumothorax – pulmonary embolism – aspiration • pain Hypoventilation in PACU Quick assessment • oversedation – residual anesthetic • opioids – parenteral – epidural/intrathecal Wheezing in PACU Quick assessment • laryngeal spasm (stridor) – after thyroid operation • bleeding • paresis of n recurrens • bronchospasm – asthma – bronchial hyper-responsivess (smoking, postviral) – pulmonary oedema – aspiration – anaphylaxis But does residual neuromuscular block put our patients in danger? • Muscle function and coordination of protective reflexes of the pharynx and upper esofagus recover late – Eriksson L et al. Anesthesiology 1997 • Ventilatory response to hypoxia is reduced (direct inhibition of chemoreceptor activity in the carotic bodies) – Eriksson L et al. Anesthesiology 1993, Wyon N et al Anesthesiology 1999 • Volunteers – Difficulty in maintaining airway – Desaturation and need for supplemental oxygen – Disability to swallow Eikerman et al. Anestehsiology 2003 Kopman A et al. Anesthesiology 1997 – Distress Bissinger et al. Physiol Res 2000 • PACU time prolonged – Murphy et al. Anesth Analg 2004 Residual neuromuscular block is a risk factor for postoperative pulmonary complications: A prospective, randomised, and blinded study of postoperative pulmonary complications after atracurium, vecuronium and pancuronium Berg et al. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1997 • • • • • • • Manual TOF during operation TOF 1-2/4 Reversal when 2-4/4 Extubation when 4/4 Mechanomyographically postoperatively Follow-up up to 6 PODs Postoperative pulmonary complication : pneumonic infiltration/atelectasis in X-ray TOF recordings at first postoperative mechanomyographic recording Berg et al. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1997 Postoperative pulmonary complications Berg et al. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1997 Type of surgery and the risk of pulmonary complications Berg et al. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1997 Probability of postoperative pulmonary complications Berg et al. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1997 Multiple logistic regression analysis relating the probability of POPC to various covariates Residual paralysis in the PACU after single intubating dose of nondepolarizing muscle relaxant with an intermediate duration of action Debaene et al Anesthesiology 2003 • • • • • 526 patients 2ED95 dose of vecuronium, rocuronium, or atracurium No muscle relaxant thereafter Excluded, if reversal used Time delay between the injection of muscle relaxant and quantitative measurement of neuromuscular blockade assessed • Conclusion: A long duration between the administration of a single dose of an internediate-acting nondepolarizing muscle relaxant and the arrival to PACU does not guarantee the lack of residual paralysis • Note! – hypothermia, – halogenated anesthesia agents Bedaene et al. Anesthesiology 2003 Residual neuromuscular block Widely used tests to assess recovery from neuromuscular block • Train-of-four ratio > 0.7 / 0.9 by peripheral nerve stimulation • Reliable clinical tests of postoperative neuromuscular recovery • • • • • Sustained head lift fot 5s Sustained leg lift fot 5 s Sustained hand grip for 5 s Sustained tongue depressor test Maximun ispiratory presuure >-50 cm H20 However, poor sensitivity do not secure against residual block ! Pedersen et al. Anesthesiology 1990 Shorten et al. Can J Anaesth 1995 Fruergaard et al. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1998 Bedaene et al. Anesthesiology 2003 Residual neuromuscular block • Significant residual block can be excluded only by objective, methods • mechanomyography • electromyography • acceleromyography • ”It is time to move from discussion to action and introduce objective neuromuscular monitoring to all ORs. I believe that objective neuromuscular monitoring is an evidence-based practice and should consequently be used whenever a nondepolarizing neuromuscular blocking agent is administered” Eriksson L. Evidence-based practise and neuromuscular monitoring. It,s time for routine quantitative assessment. Anesthesiology 2003 ”The ideal world is one thing, and the real world another!” Viby-Mogensen. Postoperative residual curarization and evidence-based anaesthesia. BJA 2000 How to avoid residual neuromuscular block? (I) • Long acting neuronuscular blocking agents should not be used • Antagonize the block at the end of the procedure • Reversal initiated only when (2-)3-4/4 TOF stimulations present or when spontaneous muscle activity is present • Prefer tactile evaluation of response to double-burst stimulation (DBS) to TOF stimulation • Consider clinical signs and symptoms in relation to the response to nerve stimulation • Keep in mind the additive/prolonged effects caused by anesthetics and hypothermia Viby-Mogensen. Postoperative residual curarization and evidence-based anaesthesia. BJA 2000 How to avoid residual neuromuscular block? (II) • Every operating room and PACU should have an apparatus for assessing neoromuscular blockade ( and know how to use it !) • TOF, preferably quantitative, monitoring of the neuromuscular block is mandatory if antagonists are not used!! • TOF >0.9 the new ”gold standard” for full recovery Viby-Mogensen. Postoperative residual curarization and evidence-based anaesthesia. BJA 2000 Postoperative pain • a complication itself ? • aggressive pain prophylaxis in all patients Note! • pain must be in proportion to the operative procedure performed – operative/postoperative complication in development – tolerance to opioids Postoperative pain • • • • discomfort agitation PONV sympathetic activation – cardiovascular complications • hypertension – surgical bleeding • immobilisation – deep vein thrombosis – pulmonary dysfunction • chronic postsurgical pain Opioid related side effects • • • • PONV drowsiness respiratory depression dysphoria/agitation • gastrointestinal and bladder dysfunction Balanced or multimodal analgesia • Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory analgesics (NSAIDs) • Paracetamol • Local anesthetics – wound infiltration /neural blockade – liposome local anesthetics in the future? • Combined with – PCA – Epidural Cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors in postoperative pain management. Currest evidence and future directions Gilron et al. Anesthesiology 2003 Efficacy of postoperative epidural analgesia. A meta analysis Block et al JAMA 2003 • 1404 articles in PubMed reviewed of which 1304 rejected – Inclusion criteria • randomization • epidural analgesia versus parenteral opioids in adults • VAS/Numeric rating Efficacy of postoperative epidural analgesia ; pain at rest Block et al. JAMA 2003 Efficacy of postoperative epidural analgesia; incident pain Block et al. JAMA 2003 Efficacy of postoperative epidural analgesia; VAS recordings Conclusion: Epidural analgesia (other than TEA with opioids only) provides better postoperative analgesia to parenteral opioid Block et al. JAMA 2003 Efficacy of postoperative epidural analgesia; complications Block et al. JAMA 2003 The ”Little big problem of anesthesia” Postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) • Patient-specific risk factors – Female sex IA – Nonsmoking status IVA – History of PONV/Motion sickness IVA • Anesthetic risk factors – Use of volatile anesthetics IA – Nitrous oxide IIA – Use of intraoperative IIA and postoperative opioids IVA • Surgical risk factors – Duration of surgery IVA – Type of surgery (laparoscopy, ear-nose-throat, neurosurgery, breast, strabismus, laparotomy, plastic IVB Consensus guidelines for managing postoperative nausea and vomiting Gan et al. Anesth Analg 2003 Postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) Keep the baseline risk low ! • • • • • • • • Regional anesthesia IIIA Propofol for induction and maintenence IA Intraoperative supplemental oxygen IIIB Adequate hydration IIIA Avoid nitrous oxide IIA Avoid volatile anesthetics IA Minimize intraoperative IIA and postoperative IVA opioids Minimization of neostigmine IIA Gan et al. Anesth Analg 2003 Algorithm for prevention of PONV Gan et al. Anesth Analg 2003 Multimodal or balanced antiemetic strategy Prophylaxis of PONV Antiemetic doses and timing in adults Gan et al. Anesth Analg 2003 Treatment of PONV in PACU Gan et al. Anesth Analg 2003 Perioperative mild hypothermia (34-35C); Complications Sessler.Perioperative hypothermia. NEJM 1997 Perioperative maintenance of normothermia reduces the incidence of morbid cardiac events: A randomized clinical trial. Frank et al. JAMA 1997 Perioperative hypothermia and PACU • cardiovascular complications – symphathetic overactivity – norepinephrine • coagulapathy – platelet function – clotting factor enzyme function – fibrinolytic activity • shivering – increased total-body oxygen consumption – patient discomfort • residual neuromuscular blockade – respiratory complications – aspiration • prolongation of PACU stay Perioperative hypothermia First stage • internal transfer of core heat to periphery i.e., internal redistribution Second stage • drop in core temperature as the result of heat losses – cutaneous, – exposure of viscera – cold solutions Third stage • cutaneous vasocontriction • core temperature remains almost stable but the heat content of the limbs continues to fall • Mild hypothermia 34-35 C Sessler Anesthesiology 2001 Perioperative mild hypothermia Delay in recovery Lenhard et al.Mild intraoperative hypothermia prolongs postoperative recivery Anesthesiology 2001 Postanesthesia shivering • Involuntary movement that may affect one/several muscle groups and generally occurs in the early recovery phase after general anesthesia • Thermoregulatory shivering – associated with cutaneous vasoconstriction – physiological response to hypothermia • Non-thermoregulatory shivering • Overall incidence 6-66% Risk factors for postanesthesia shivering • • • • • Young adult Long surgery & anesthesia Drop in body temperature No active perioperative rewarming Anesthetic used – Halogenated agents + – Thiopental + – Propofol • Little opioids perioperatively • Postoperative pain Hypothermia and shivering in PACU • Use forced-air blankets and warmed iv solutions • Consider rewarming the patient before extubation – Temperature monitoring • Beware of altered pharmacokinetics – monitor (and antagonize) residual neuromuscular blockade – extubate when awake ! Increased risk of aspiration • Treat postoperative pain promptly! Alfonsi. Postanesthetic shivering. Systematic review. Drugs 2001 Postanesthesia shivering: Medical treatment Meperidine 0.4-0.85 mg/kg i.v. Tramadol 1-2 mg/kg i.v. Mg-sulphate 30 mg/kg i.v. (Clonidine 0.3mg/kg i.v) Alfonsi. Postanesthetic shivering. Systematic review. Drugs 2001 Postoperative agitation • Hypoxia • Hypercapnia • Pain • Distension of the stomach • Urinary retention • Apprehension about the findings at operation or fear of pain • (Intraoperative awareness) • (Neurological sequalae) Drug error related incidents out of 419 PACU incidents reported to AIMS Inapproriate drug Overdosage Inadequate drug/dosage Misconnection/wrong route Side-effect Withdrawal Allergy 17 14 6 3 2 1 1 4% 3% 1% 1% 0.5 % 0.2 % 0.2 % Kluger and Bullock. Anaesthesia 2002 Discharge criteria from the PACU The Association of Finnish Anaesthesiologists 1999 • conscious • can secure his/her airway – protective reflexes recovered • ventilation and oxygen saturation adequate • stable hemodynamics (heart rate, blood pressure) • normothermia • pain and PONV in adequate control • motor block wearimg off (spinal, epidural) • no surgical reasons requiring longer follow-up • a plan for analgesics, antiemetics and intravenous fluids provided Aldrete Score Preoperative clinic Operation Room OR High Dependency Unit HD PACU Intensive Care Unit ICU Surgical ward PACU Safety Safety Comfort Comfort PACU