• To give the concept of memory
• To discuss the process of memory
• To understand different problems with the memory
• To learn about memory strategies to improve memory

• Concept of Memory
• Three-Stage Model of Memory
• Forgetting and Memory
• Problems with Memory
• Memory Improvement

• Memory is the ability to code, store and retrieve information
– Procedural: how to ride a bike
– Factual: definition of “learning”
• Memory involves coding the input of the senses (visual, auditory)

• Memory is the most extraordinary phenomenon
• Nearly all higher mental functions (speech, thinking, perceptions, moods, judgments) are based on phenomenon of memory
• Stores events as video recordings along with associated feelings and emotions
• Pleasant and unpleasant memories

• Human memory resembles a computer
• It has three stages:
• Encoding: Sensory information is received and coded or transferred into neural impulses which can be processed further or stored for later use.
• Storage: the encoded information is stored in memory system. Some information is stored briefly and then discarded e.g. telephone number, others used frequently is stored on permanent basis

• Retrieval: when we recall or bring a memory in consciousness, we have retrieved it. This process is called Memory
Retrieval.

• Sensory Memory is a brief representation of a stimulus while being processed in the sensory system
• Storage of sensory events such as sights, sounds and tastes

• Short-Term Memory (STM) is working memory
– Selective Attention: determine what information to send to short-term memories
– Brief memory, temporary storehouse
– Information is stored as images, sounds
– Limited capacity (7 items)
– Duration is about 30 seconds

• Long-Term Memory
• Permanent storehouse
• LTM is large capacity and long duration
• Information transferred from STM to LTM is coded into categories and stored in terms of meaning and importance

• Psychologists distinguish between two types of LTM
– Semantic memory refers to factual information, general and specific information
( What is the capital of Pakistan?
)
– Episodic memory refers to memory of personal events as to where and when an event happened
• “I remember visiting the……………”
• “My first day at college”

• Items in LTM are organized in categories that form a hierarchy with multiple paths (direct and indirect) to each item
– Sometimes the cues required to recall an item are not sufficient
– Tip-of the tongue phenomenon: person can’t easily recall the item, but shows some recall for its characteristics (“…it begins with the letter ….”)

• This process consists of keeping items of information in the centre of attention by repeating them
• If someone having good memory it is due to his ability and experience in rehearsing
• Not only amount of rehearsal is important but also the ways in which information is rehearsed
• Elaborative rehearsal: giving meaning, organization to the material being rehearsed

• Recognition is when a specific cue (face or name) is matched against LTM
• Recall is when a general cue is used to search memory
• e.g. define the term “personality”
• Relearning refers to a situation in which a person learns material a second time.
Memory is evident in savings of time to relearn the second time versus the first

• Where were you when you first heard:
– That Benazir Bhutto had been killed?

• Forgetting is the inability to recall previously learned information
• Forgetting refers to memory failure
• Forgetting rate is steep just after learning and then becomes a gradual loss of recall

• Interference theory argues that learning new things interferes with what we learned earlier
• Proactive interference : old information interferes with recall of new information
• Retroactive interference : new information interferes with recall of old information
• Decay theory: memory trace fades with time

• Motivated forgetting: involves the loss of painful, unpleasant memories (protective memory loss)
• Repression
• Retrieval failure: the information is still within LTM, but cannot be recalled because the retrieval cue is absent

• Amnesia is forgetting produced by brain injury or by trauma
– Retrograde amnesia refers to problems with recall of information prior to a trauma
– Anterograde amnesia refers to problems with recall of information after a trauma
Retrograde amnesia
Anterograde amnesia
Point of Trauma

• MMSE
• Amnestic disorders
• Dementias
• Alzheimer’s diseases

• Two key parts of limbic system are essential in receiving new information and storing it:
• Hippocampus
• Amygdala

Bilateral damage to the hippocampus results in anterograde amnesia

• Feedback of Knowledge: feedback allows you to check effectiveness of learning
• Attention
• Recitation and Rehearsal: repetition of what you have learnt

• Organization and Categorizationchunks
• North, man, blue, summer, girl, green, west, yellow, boy, east, woman
• Chunking helps long term memory
• Linking information meaningfully
• Organizing ideas into hierarchies

• Selection: careful and selective marking in your text book
• Attach emotions, feelings: we hardly forget what is emotionally significant

• Distributed practice refers to spacing learning periods in contrast to massed practice in which learning is “crammed” into a single session
• Distributed practice leads to better retention
• Sleep: sleep after the study is helpful and reduces the interference

• Overlearning: memory is greatly improved when study is continued beyond bare mastery.
• Review
• Manage your time

• Flanagan (1997) argues that we remember:
• 20% of what we read
• 30% of what we hear
• 40% of what we see
• 50% of what we say
• 60% of what we do
• And
• 90% of what we read, hear, see, say and do.