The Age of Nation
States
Crimean
War
Italian and German Unification
France, England, Russia 1848-1900
Problems in the Habsburg Empire
Crimean War
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Began as a dispute between Russia and France
as to who should protect holy sites in the Ottoman
Empire
Britain and France worried that Russia would
become too powerful in the Ottoman region—
1853 they declare war on Russia
1st war to be covered by correspondents
Florence Nightingale changed nursing
War ended in 1885—Peace of Paris
Results:
--Turkey won independence
--Black Sea neutral
--Russians renounced their rights to holy sites within
the Ottoman Empire
--Russia’s reputation damaged, lagged behind the
rest of Europe in many ways
--England emerges as the strongest European
power
--undid what the Congress of Vienna tried to
accomplish in the Concert of Europe
Obstacles to Italian Unification
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Northern Italy is prosperous, Southern Italy
is largely agricultural, poor
Pope’s influence and control of papal states
Foreign countries ruled over parts of Italy
Unification of Italy
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1848—liberals failed to unify Italy
Before liberation, Italy was divided into Piedmont-Sardinia,
Lombardy-Venetia, the Papal States, and the Kingdom of
Naples
Giuseppe Mazzini– tried to unify Italy in 1848, was a member
of the “springtime of the peoples”, hated absolutism and
aristocracy, believed unification had to be through the people,
not through only one kingdom, formed a secret society,
“Young Italy” to mobilize the masses
King Victor Emmanuel II, King of Sardinia appoints Camillo
Cavour as Prime Minister in 1854.
Camillo Cavour
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Impressed w/England and France’s prosperity and attributed
it to aristocratic liberalism
Boosted economy by lowering tariffs, building RRs,
strengthening army
Applied civil codes to the clergy, lowered their income, taxed
church property
Wanted Italy unified under Piedmont—Sardinia
Believed use of force was necessary—get rid of Austria
Got Napoleon III to help Sardinia in the case of a war with
Austria (Napoleon offered because Sardinia helped France
out in the Crimean War and Sardinia promised them some
land in return for help)
War with Austria
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Marriage arranged between Napoleon III’s cousin and Victor
Emmanuel’s daughter—he will rule the Papal States
1859—Austria invades Sardinia, bringing the French into the
war
Due to Sardinia’s military successes and fear for the Pope’s
life, France got nervous
Without consulting Cavour, Napoleon arranged for an
armistice w/ Austria. Cavour and Victor Emmanuel felt
betrayed
In the armistice, Austria lost Lombardy but kept Venetia in the
Treaty of Turin (1860). Sardinia annexed Tuscany, Modena,
Parma and Bologna but ceded Savoy and Nice to the French
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Giuseppe Garibaldi—
-- an Italian nationalist and member of Young Italy
-- was angered by the armistice because it cut
short unification.
--organized an army of volunteers, The Red Shirts
--went to Sicily and liberated the people there
from Francis II (Bourbon Monarch)
--then the Red Shirts went to the Peninsula, took
Naples. Cavour sent troops to “help” Garibaldi—
the combined forces ended papal resistance and
kicked out the royal Bourbon family of Naples
Final Steps to Unification
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1866 Austro-Prussian War, Venetia
becomes part of Italy
1870 Franco-Prussian War, French troops
leave Rome
Early Troubles in Italy
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Cavour died—bad timing, country needed his administrative
abilities
Most people remained loyal to local governments, mafias,
church
70% population was illiterate in 1871
Pope refused to recognize Italy’s existence
Transformismo system—political opponents were
“transformed” into supporters through bribery, favors, or given
seats in the cabinet—very corrupt.
Italia Irredenta
German Unification
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Did not come through liberal means
Upper classes were wary of any change that
would threaten the status quo
Unclear who would dominate—Prussia or
Austria?
1850s were repressive—many
democrats/nationalists had fled the country
(not enough left to work for unification
effectively)
Prussia Takes the Lead--Why?
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Territory gained in Rhineland after the
Napoleonic Wars
Strong economy (Zollverein)
Homogeneous population, mostly
German speaking and Protestant
Hohenzollerns had an effective
bureaucracy and a supportive noble
class (junkers)
Otto von Bismarck
“The Iron Chancellor
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A junker
Germany would be united through “blood and
iron” tactics, practiced realpolitik
Parliament didn’t give him the $ he wanted,
so he raised taxes, enlarged the army and
passed his own reforms—no one stopped him
War w/Denmark—1864 over Schleswig and
Holstein, German victory
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Austro-Prussian War—
--enlists Italy’s help by promising them
territories
--gets France to agree to stay out of it
--defeats the Austrians in 7 weeks
--makes the peace agreement lenient to
keep Austria out of the next conflick
--creates the North German
Confederation
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Franco-Prussian War
--war w/France began because of a dispute
over a Hohenzollern taking the Spanish
throne
--after William I tried to settle it peacefully,
Bismarck re-wrote a memo, making it look
like William had insulted the French (he really
wanted war). He released the memo to the
public causing Napoleon III to declare war on
Prussia
--Prussia defeated the French (Battle of
Sedan) and took Alsace-Lorraine
Ramifications of the New
German State
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Bismarck launched Kulturkampf, an attack on
the Catholic Church and Socialists—both
backfired as they became more popular—he
was fired shortly after
New, strong, military state—made Europe
nervous, changed the balance of power
Created a bitter enemy—Francy
Rising economic success of the new Germany
created competition w/England, leading to
the scramble for colonies
England, France and Russia
1848-1900
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England
--Crystal Palace built, symbolizing the
potential of industrialization
--William Gladstone, prime minister,
tries to expand the vote, Disraeli (his
successor) does
--rise of 2 party system, decline in the
power of the monarchy
France
--Napoleon III led France to economic
prosperity and made some liberal reforms but
he got them into the Franco-Prussian War,
was captured and exiled
--Third Republic, challenged by the Paris
Commune (20,000 killed) which lasted 2
months
--Third Republic stabilized until the Dreyfus
Affair which split France down the middle and
made the conservatives seem very antisemitic. Emile Zola wrote a letter accusing the
govt of lying—he was sent to prison
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Russia
--1861 Alexander II frees the serfs
--created zemstvos (local govts)
--Alexander III made great strides in
industrializing Russia, constructing RRs
and factories