The Unification of Italy
and Germany, 1848-1914
Nationalism and the Balance of
Power
Key Questions
 How was the Crimean War a turning point
in the diplomacy of the nineteenth century?
 How did Bismarck and Cavour apply the
“lessons of 1848” and use Realpolitik in
the unification of Italy and Germany?
 Analyze the impact of these unifications on
the European balance of power, 18711914.
Lessons of 1848
 1. Nationalism is a powerful
force—Conservatives
cannot ignore
 2. Slogans, assemblies,
barricades cannot achieve
unity and revolution—need
armies, bureaucracy,
industry—POWER!
 3. The intervention of
outside powers must be
avoided or courted
 4. Ignore public opinion at
your own peril—a new
breed of leader
Crimean War (1853-56)—Causes
 “an avoidable war with significant consequences”
 The “Eastern Question”
 Fear of the Russian colossus (the Straits)
•Immediate
issue—
protection of
Christian
minorities
•Russian
ultimatum and
Turkish
declaration of
war (w/French
& British
backing)
Crimean War—Course
* Russia defeats O.E.,
moves into Wallachia &
Moldavia
 Fr/G.B. intervene with
ultimatum
 Russia complies but war
fever too strong
 Austria—”we will
astonish the world with
our ingratitude”
 Siege, rifled weapons,
trenches, supply/medical
issues
 Symbol—”Charge of the
Light Brigade”
 The “only hero”—
Florence Nightengale
Crimean War—Consequences
 Alexander II (1855-81) and need for
reform
 Treaty of Paris—Russia disgorges
territory & demilitarizes Black Sea
 Concert of Europe destroyed—”go
one’s own way”
 Austria isolated, Balkan conflict
w/Russia
 G.B.—”Splendid isolation” until
1900
 France—false impression of
leadership, Napoleon III and
nationalism
 Piedmont-Sardinia’s bid for friends
 Sets the stage for unification
diplomacy and patterns leading to
WWI
Italy—a “Geographical
Expression”
 Historical lack of unity,
issue of HRE conflict but
Pope and Emperor
 Habsburg-Valois Wars &
foreign domination
 Napoleon—spreads
nationalism, rev. goals,
republics
 Congress of Vienna places
Italy under foreign control
 Revolutions of 1848—role
of Piedmont, Roman
Republic, etc.
Italian Nationalism
 Mazzini and Young
Italy (republican)
 Garibaldi and Red
Shirts (exile)
 Carbonari and
Metternich
 Possible govts.—
republic,
confederation under
Pope, constitutional
monarchy (Piedmont)
Garibaldi
Piedmont-Sardinia and Cavour
 Count Camillo Benso
di Cavour—moderate
Liberal & pragmatic,
Il Risorgimento,
personality, fortune in
shipping, banking,
industry
 Econ. expansion—
canals, roads, RRs,
shipping, industry
 Creates modern
tax/budget system and
army
Cavour’s Diplomacy
 Crimean War
 Plombieres (1858)
 Magenta & Solferino—
Napoleon’s fear
 Revolutions (1860) and
plebiscites in other
states
 Garibaldi & Red Shirts
into Two Sicilies, up
peninsula (Papal
States), Piedmont
intervenes, Garibaldi
relinquishes conquest
The Future of Italy
 Proclaimed 3/17/1861
 Cavour dies 3 mos. later from
overwork
 “picking up pieces”—alliance
w/Prussia gets Venetia (1866)
& Rome (1870)
 Problems—economic
underdev., opposition of
Papacy, aggressive
nationalism, corruption
(trasformismo), Mezzagiorno–
regionalism
 Assessment—”the passion of
Mazzini, audacity of
Garibaldi, cunning of Cavour”
Germany—the “800-lb. Gorilla”
 Failed efforts at unity
under Habsburgs
 Rise of Prussia (checked
by Austria)
 Napoleon promoted
German nat’lism
abolished HRE
 German Confederation
(from C. of Vienna)
dominated by
conservative Austria
 Passive Prussia—status
quo
 Failure of 1848—major
defeat for Liberals
The Role of Prussia
 Reforms of 1807—army, admin.,
serfdom
 Zollverein (1834) created by List
 Constitution of 1850
– 3 voting levels (favors Junkers)
– Middle class up w/industrializ.
– Minister resp. to king not Reichstag
 Humiliation of Olmutz stops Prussia
attempt
 Fred. Will. IV (1840-61)—insane
absolutist
 William I (1861-88)—intent on
army reform & conservative control
 Army reforms (1862)—General
Staff (von Moltke), needle gun,
Landwehr, draft
Bismarck—”iron and blood”
 Personality—Junker,
Romanticism, diplomatic
experience
 Allegiances evolve
toward world statesman
 Appointed Chancellor in
1862
 Constitutional Crisis—
control of finances &
army
 “iron and blood”—
strategy and rhetoric
 Realpolitik—definition
and comparison
w/Napoleon III & Hitler
Bismarck’s Realpolitik, Phase I
 Approach—chess player, opportunist, isolate opponents
 Polish Revolt (1863)—wins over Russia
 Danish War (1864)
– Schleswig/Holstein (occup. by Denmark)
– Ignores Germ. Conf. & ties Aust. to Prussian aims
– Conv. of Gastein—admin. of provinces
 Austro-Prussian War (1866)—Seven Weeks War
– Goal—eliminate Austria from German politics
– Buys French neutrality w/vague promises in
Rhineland
– Italy, Russia, and G.B. neutral or friendly
– Prussia wins quickly—RRs, organization, weapons
– Peace of Prague—Austria surrenders Venetia, bows
out of German affairs, Dual Monarchy (1867)
Constitutional Arrangements
 Indemnity Bill (1866)—
causes split of Liberals
(National Liberals)
 North German Conf.—
universal male suffrage
(Bismarck’s idea), key
role of Chancellor and
Prussian Minister of
State
 Alliances with South
German States
(Catholic)—looks to
French hostility
Bismarck’s Realpolitik, Part II
 Isolation of France
 Vacancy of Spanish throne—
Hohezollern cousin of William I
 William I withdraws but Nap.
Overplays
 Ems Dispatch—“red flag for the
Gallic bull”
 Prussian prep—RRs, staff,
“landscape painters”
 French military disorganized (Nap.
captured at Sedan)
 Paris Commune (Nov. 1870-Jan.
1871)—class struggle & creation of
Third Republic (bad start)
 Treaty of Frankfurt (1871)—5
billion franc indemnity, loss of
Alsace-Lorraine (ethnic identity and
issues)—concern w/non-Germans
Bismarck, Roon, von Moltke
The German Empire
 How Germany was
made—authoritarian,
militaristic, antiLiberal
 Assessing the work of
Bismarck & his
tactics
 Effect on BOP
 “A Satisfied Giant”
until 1890 when
Bismarck dismissed
 THEN…..
Disraeli’s Quote
“There is not a diplomatic tradition which
has not been swept away. You have a new
world, new influences at work, new and
unknown objects and danger with which to
cope….The balance of power has been
entirely destroyed, and the country which
suffers most, and feels the effect of the
change most, is England.”