BIO 3 TEST

Found in all animals/plants; effective from birth (before any exposure to pathogens); nonspecific and no memory

a small set of receptors that bind structures common to a group of viruses, bacteria, or other microbes

Skin, mucous, natural killer cells, inflammatory response

Only in vertebrates; activated after the innate immune response and develops more slowly; highly specific; has memory (to provide enhanced protection)

A vast arsenal of receptors, each of which is very specific for a particular pathogen

Antibodies, cytotoxic cells

Mast cells, found in the connective tissue, release histamine

Histamine triggers blood vessels to dilate and become more permeable

Activated macrophages release cytokines that recruit neutrophils

Neutrophils digest pathogens and cell debris (phagocytosis); the tissue heals.

a type of phagocyte that releases histamines; recruits macrophages and neutrophils; induces local inflammation and involved in wound healing; triggers blood vessels to dilate via histamines

Found throughout the body (some migrate, some live in a permanent spot); releases cytokines; eats foreign pathogens

A type of phagocytic cell that circulates through the blood to infected tissue; releases toxins and recruits other immune cells to the infected site

Signaling molecules that triggers blood vessels to dilate and become more permeable

signaling molecules that recruits neutrophils/signals the presence of a pathogen to immune cells to induce a response

Neutrophils, macrophages, dendritic cells, eosinophils

Mainly populate tissues that contact the environment (ex. skin)

Often found beneath an epithelium, important against multicellular invaders (like parasitic worms)

Circulate through the body and detect abnormal cells; do not engulf but instead release chemicals leading to cell death

Involved in local inflammation, defense against parasites; releases histamines

Humoral response; remains and matures in bone marrow

B for Bone Marrow and HUMOR

Cell-mediated response; migrates to and matures in the thymus

T for Thymus and TCM

Stem cells in bone marrow

Antibodies (Abs)

Antibodies are secreted into the liquid (humoral) component of blood and serve as membrane-bound receptors for B-cells

Helper T cells

Cytotoxic T cells

Regulatory T cells

A substance that elicits a response from a B or T cell

The accessible part of an antigen that binds to an antigen receptor

Y-shaped with two identical heavy chains and two identical light chains; both comprised of constant (C) and variable (V) regions

Variable regions

Asymmetry

A B cell antigen receptor binds to an antigen

Consists of two different polypeptide chains (called α and β); tips are variable (V) while the rest of the region is constant (C)

T cells bind to antigen fragments on a host cell surface by MHC molecules (class I and II); not specific

Found on all host nucleated cells (basically everything except red blood cells); displays endogenous antigens to cytotoxic T cells

ALPHABETICAL: ENDO CYTOTOXIC ONE

Found on antigen-presenting cells (APCs) like B cells, Dendritic cells, and Macrophages; displays exogenous antigens to helper T cells

ALPHABETICAL: EXO HELPER TWO

-Diversity of lymphocytes/receptors

-Self-tolerance

-B/T cells proliferate after activation

-Immunological memory

Immunoglobulin (Ig)

short-lived and acts immediately against the antigen

Plasma cells (secrete antibodies)

Literal humoral.

Helper T cells and cytotoxic T cells

Long-lived and can give rise to effector cells if the same antigen is encountered again

Humoral (production of antibodies by B cells that neutralize pathogens) and Cell-mediated (activation of cytotoxic T cells that kill infected cells)

Cytotoxic T cells

-An antigen

-Cytokines from Helper T cells

-Plasma cells (antibody secreting effector cells) and Memory B cells (quickly convert into plasma cells upon future exposure to the same antigen)

-Neutralization (interfering with pathogen activity)

-Opsonization (marking pathogens for destruction)

-Working with the complement system to generate a membrane attack complex to lyse the pathogen

No

-Cannot reproduce or carry out metabolism outside of a host cell

-infectious particles consisting of nucleic acid enclosed in a protein coat

Comprised of one linear or circular nucleic acid molecule encoding 3 to ≈2,000 genes; nucleic acid arranges as double or single-stranded DNA/RNA

Protein shell that encloses the viral genome- built from protein subunits (capsomeres)

-Derived from membranes of host cells -surround the capsids of many viruses found in animals

-Combination of viral and host cell molecules

-Includes glycoprotein spikes that aid infection

-Includes influenza and coronaviruses

-Long and cylindrical

-Includes many plant viruses

-First discovered virus

-Polyhedron with 20 triangular faces

-May contain protein spikes

-Causes minor infections (common cold, sore throat, pink eye)

-Rarely causes serious illness/death

-Viruses that infect bacteria

-Most complex capsids

-Contains elongated icosahedral capsid heads with DNA

-Contains rod-shaped tailpieces that attach to the host and inject DNA

A limited number of host cells that it can infect; includes species and cell types

Produces new phages and lyses the host's cell wall, releasing progeny viruses

Phages that reproduces only by the lytic cycle

Replicates the phage genome without destroying the host; the viral DNA molecule becomes incorporated into the host cell's chromosome and thus copies the phage DNA (prophage) into daughter cells; can switch to the lytic cycle through an environmental stressor

Phages that use both the lytic and lysogenic cycles

-RNA serves directly as mRNA

-RNA serves as template for mRNA synthesis (viral enzyme required)

-RNA serves as template for synthesis of DNA that gets integrated into the host genomic DNA (aka retroviruses)

Retrovirus (RNA serves as template for synthesis of DNA that gets integrated into the host genomic DNA), which uses the enzyme reverse transcriptase to copy their RNA into DNA

Reverse-transcribed viral DNA that integrates into the host genome (remains a permanent resident)

The host's RNA polymerase transcribes the proviral DNA back into the RNA molecules; functions both as mRNA for synthesis and as genomes for new virus particles released from the cell

-Thrive almost everywhere

-Most abundant & first organisms on earth

-All have a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, double-stranded DNA genome, and ribosomes

-Mostly unicellular

-Much smaller and simpler than eukaryotes

-Lacks a nucleus

-Most of the genome consists of a circular chromosome

-Usually have smaller rings of independently replicating DNA (plasmids)

-Reproduce by binary fission

Bacteria have peptidoglycan

Archaea lack peptidoglycan

Both have a single origin of replication, but archaeal DNA replication is more similar to that of eukaryotes

Archaeal transcription and translation are more similar to those of eukaryotes

Have less peptidoglycan and an outer membrane that can have toxic lipopolysaccharides (LPS); lipid portions of LPS are toxic, causing fever; more antibiotic resistant

Simpler cells walls with a large amount of peptidoglycan and no outer membrane; antibiotics target peptidoglycan and damage bacterial cell walls; some are virulent and resistant

POSITIVE PETIDOGLYCAN

Sticky polysaccharide or protein layer that covers some prokaryotes; allows adherence and can shield bacteria

Extensions of some prokaryotes that help them stick to their substrate or other individuals in a colony

Longer than fimbriae; allow prokaryotes to exchange DNA

used to propel motile bacteria

-Rapid reproduction

-Mutation

-Genetic recombination (combining DNA from 2 sources, brought by transformation, transduction, and conjugation)

Taking up and incorporation of foreign DNA from the surrounding environment (a nonpathogenic bacteria can be transformed to a pathogenic strain if exposed to DNA from a pathogenic strain)

Movement of prokaryotic genes between bacteria by bacteriophages; usually results from accidents that occur during the phage replicative cycle

Process where genetic material is transferred between prokaryotic cells (always one way) via a pilus or "mating bridge"

Required for the production of pili (F for fertility)

Plasmid or segment of DNA within the bacterial chromosome

DNA donors

DNA recipients

a copy of the entire F plasmid is transferred

A cell with the F factor built into its chromosomes also functions as a donor during conjugation

An Hfr cell forms a mating bridge with an F- cell

A single strand of the F factor breaks and begins to move through the bridge

Crossing over can result in exchange of homologous genes

Enzymes degrade any DNA not incorporated; recipient cell is now a recombinant F- cell.

Studies how an organism's structure, physiology, and (for animals) behavior meet environmental challenges

Example: How do flamingos select a mate?

Focuses on factors affecting population size over time

Example: What environmental factors affect the reproductive rates of flamingos?

Examines how species interactions affect community structure and organization

Example: What factors influence the diversity of species that interact at this lake?

Emphasizes energy flow and chemical cycling among the various biotic and abiotic components

Example: What factors control photosynthetic productivity in this aquatic ecosystem?

Focuses on the exchanges of energy, materials, and organisms across multiple ecosystems

Example: To what extent do nutrients from terrestrial ecosystems affect organisms in the lake?

Examines the influence of energy and materials on organisms across the biosphere

Example: How do global patterns of air circulation affect the distribution of organisms?

The long term (≥30 years) prevailing weather conditions in a given area; strongly influences the distribution of plants, which determines the location of terrestrial biomes

-Grades into each other (no sharp boundaries)

-Vertical layering (provides diversity)

-Dynamic and variable, but can have similar characteristics from convergent evolution

Area of integration between two biomes; may be wide or narrow

-Upper canopy

-Low-tree layer

-Shrub understory

-Ground layer of herbaceous plants

-Forest floor

-Root layer

-Distribution (regions/layers)

-Precipitation

-Temperature

-Plants (what plants present)

-Animals (what animals present)

-Account for the largest part of the biosphere

-Less latitudinal variation