Flashcards: BIO 3 TEST

Found in all animals/plants; effective from birth (before any exposure to pathogens); nonspecific and no memory

a small set of receptors that bind structures common to a group of viruses, bacteria, or other microbes

Skin, mucous, natural killer cells, inflammatory response

Only in vertebrates; activated after the innate immune response and develops more slowly; highly specific; has memory (to provide enhanced protection)

A vast arsenal of receptors, each of which is very specific for a particular pathogen

Antibodies, cytotoxic cells

Neutrophils, macrophages, dendritic cells, eosinophils

Mainly populate tissues that contact the environment (ex. skin)

Circulate through the body and detect abnormal cells; do not engulf but instead release chemicals leading to cell death

Humoral response; remains and matures in bone marrow

B for Bone Marrow and HUMOR

Cell-mediated response; migrates to and matures in the thymus

T for Thymus and TCM

Antibodies (Abs)

Antibodies are secreted into the liquid (humoral) component of blood and serve as membrane-bound receptors for B-cells

Helper T cells

Cytotoxic T cells

Regulatory T cells

A substance that elicits a response from a B or T cell

Asymmetry

A B cell antigen receptor binds to an antigen

Consists of two different polypeptide chains (called α and β); tips are variable (V) while the rest of the region is constant (C)

T cells bind to antigen fragments on a host cell surface by MHC molecules (class I and II); not specific

Found on all host nucleated cells (basically everything except red blood cells); displays endogenous antigens to cytotoxic T cells

ALPHABETICAL: ENDO CYTOTOXIC ONE

Found on antigen-presenting cells (APCs) like B cells, Dendritic cells, and Macrophages; displays exogenous antigens to helper T cells

ALPHABETICAL: EXO HELPER TWO

-Diversity of lymphocytes/receptors

-Self-tolerance

-B/T cells proliferate after activation

-Immunological memory

short-lived and acts immediately against the antigen

Helper T cells and cytotoxic T cells

Long-lived and can give rise to effector cells if the same antigen is encountered again

Humoral (production of antibodies by B cells that neutralize pathogens) and Cell-mediated (activation of cytotoxic T cells that kill infected cells)

-Plasma cells (antibody secreting effector cells) and Memory B cells (quickly convert into plasma cells upon future exposure to the same antigen)

-Cannot reproduce or carry out metabolism outside of a host cell

-infectious particles consisting of nucleic acid enclosed in a protein coat

Comprised of one linear or circular nucleic acid molecule encoding 3 to ≈2,000 genes; nucleic acid arranges as double or single-stranded DNA/RNA

-Viruses that infect bacteria

-Most complex capsids

-Contains elongated icosahedral capsid heads with DNA

-Contains rod-shaped tailpieces that attach to the host and inject DNA

A limited number of host cells that it can infect; includes species and cell types

Produces new phages and lyses the host's cell wall, releasing progeny viruses

Phages that reproduces only by the lytic cycle

Replicates the phage genome without destroying the host; the viral DNA molecule becomes incorporated into the host cell's chromosome and thus copies the phage DNA (prophage) into daughter cells; can switch to the lytic cycle through an environmental stressor

Phages that use both the lytic and lysogenic cycles

-RNA serves directly as mRNA

-RNA serves as template for mRNA synthesis (viral enzyme required)

-RNA serves as template for synthesis of DNA that gets integrated into the host genomic DNA (aka retroviruses)

Retrovirus (RNA serves as template for synthesis of DNA that gets integrated into the host genomic DNA), which uses the enzyme reverse transcriptase to copy their RNA into DNA

The host's RNA polymerase transcribes the proviral DNA back into the RNA molecules; functions both as mRNA for synthesis and as genomes for new virus particles released from the cell

-Thrive almost everywhere

-Most abundant & first organisms on earth

-All have a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, double-stranded DNA genome, and ribosomes

-Mostly unicellular

-Much smaller and simpler than eukaryotes

-Lacks a nucleus

-Most of the genome consists of a circular chromosome

-Usually have smaller rings of independently replicating DNA (plasmids)

-Reproduce by binary fission

Both have a single origin of replication, but archaeal DNA replication is more similar to that of eukaryotes

Archaeal transcription and translation are more similar to those of eukaryotes

Simpler cells walls with a large amount of peptidoglycan and no outer membrane; antibiotics target peptidoglycan and damage bacterial cell walls; some are virulent and resistant

POSITIVE PETIDOGLYCAN

Sticky polysaccharide or protein layer that covers some prokaryotes; allows adherence and can shield bacteria

Longer than fimbriae; allow prokaryotes to exchange DNA

used to propel motile bacteria

-Rapid reproduction

-Mutation

-Genetic recombination (combining DNA from 2 sources, brought by transformation, transduction, and conjugation)

Taking up and incorporation of foreign DNA from the surrounding environment (a nonpathogenic bacteria can be transformed to a pathogenic strain if exposed to DNA from a pathogenic strain)

Movement of prokaryotic genes between bacteria by bacteriophages; usually results from accidents that occur during the phage replicative cycle

Required for the production of pili (F for fertility)

Plasmid or segment of DNA within the bacterial chromosome

DNA donors

DNA recipients

a copy of the entire F plasmid is transferred

A cell with the F factor built into its chromosomes also functions as a donor during conjugation

An Hfr cell forms a mating bridge with an F- cell

A single strand of the F factor breaks and begins to move through the bridge

Crossing over can result in exchange of homologous genes

Enzymes degrade any DNA not incorporated; recipient cell is now a recombinant F- cell.

Studies how an organism's structure, physiology, and (for animals) behavior meet environmental challenges

Example: How do flamingos select a mate?

Focuses on factors affecting population size over time

Example: What environmental factors affect the reproductive rates of flamingos?

Examines how species interactions affect community structure and organization

Example: What factors influence the diversity of species that interact at this lake?

Emphasizes energy flow and chemical cycling among the various biotic and abiotic components

Example: What factors control photosynthetic productivity in this aquatic ecosystem?

Focuses on the exchanges of energy, materials, and organisms across multiple ecosystems

Example: To what extent do nutrients from terrestrial ecosystems affect organisms in the lake?

Examines the influence of energy and materials on organisms across the biosphere

Example: How do global patterns of air circulation affect the distribution of organisms?

The long term (≥30 years) prevailing weather conditions in a given area; strongly influences the distribution of plants, which determines the location of terrestrial biomes

-Grades into each other (no sharp boundaries)

-Vertical layering (provides diversity)

-Dynamic and variable, but can have similar characteristics from convergent evolution

Area of integration between two biomes; may be wide or narrow

-Upper canopy

-Low-tree layer

-Shrub understory

-Ground layer of herbaceous plants

-Forest floor

-Root layer

-Distribution (regions/layers)

-Precipitation

-Temperature

-Plants (what plants present)

-Animals (what animals present)

-Account for the largest part of the biosphere

-Less latitudinal variation

-3% salt concentration

-Consists of oceans, which covers ≈75% of Earth's surface and has an enormous impact on the biosphere

-<1% salt concentrations

-Influenced by the surrounding terrestrial biome, patterns/speed of water flow, and climate

-Light penetration

-Distance from shore

-Depth

-Temperature

Falling dead organic matter that serves as an important food source for the benthos

Semiannual mixing of lake waters (mixes oxygenated water from the surface with nutrient-rich water from the bottom)

-Physical environment

-Chemical environment

-Geological features

-Photosynthetic organisms

-Heterotrophs

Nutrient-poor and generally oxygen-rich

Nutrient-rich and often depleted of oxygen

Ecological factors (biotic & abiotic) and evolutionary history

Movement of individuals away from centers of high population density or their area of origin

-Predation

-Herbivory

-Competition

-Mutualism

-Parasitism

-Temperature (cells rupture below 0℃ and proteins denature above 45℃)

-Water (availability, cannot dry out)

-Oxygen (affected by water- oxygen diffuses slowly in water)

-Salinity (affects water balance via osmosis)

-Sunlight (intensity and quality [wavelength] affect photosynthesis)

-Rocks and soil (can organisms attach or burrow? pH levels? composition?)

Climate

-Attributed with temperature changes based on solar energy

-Burning of fossil fuels/deforestation causes shifting wind/precipitation patterns and is increasing the global temperature

The pattern of spacing among individuals within the boundaries of the population

-Extrapolating from small samples (ex. number of trees in a random plot)

-Using an indicator of population size (number of nests, fecal droppings)

-Mark-recapture method (capturing, tagging, and releasing samples, then recapturing to count)

Clumped, uniform, random

-Individuals aggregate in patches

-Most common pattern

-Influenced by resource availability, mating, and group defense

-Individuals are evenly distributed

-May be influenced by social interactions like territoriality

-Position of each individual is independent of others

-Occurs in the absence of strong attractions or repulsions

An age-specific summary of the survival and reproductive rates within a population; follows a cohort (group of [female] individuals from birth to death); reveals proportions of females alive and number of offspring produced

-Low death rates in early/middle life, increase in death rates among older age groups

-Death rate is constant over life span

-High death rates for the young, then a slower death rate for survivors

population growth in an idealized, unlimited environment; helps us understand the capacity of species to increase and the conditions that may facilitate growth; uses intrinsic rate of increase (r), resulting in a J-shaped curve

How a population grows more slowly as it nears its carrying capacity associated with limiting resources; incorporates carrying capacity (K), producing a sigmoid (S-shaped) curve; used to predict rates of population recovery, estimate harvest rates and points of extinction

Comprises the traits that affect its schedule of reproduction and survival

-The age at which reproduction begins

-How much/often an organism reproduces

-Amount of investment in parental care

selects for life history traits that are advantageous at high population densities (populations living at a density near carrying capacity, K)

selects for life history traits that are advantageous at low population densities (populations living well below carrying capacity, such that the intrinsic rate of increase, r, is maximized)

The move from the first state (zero population growth= high birth rate - high death rate) to the second state (zero population growth= low birth rate - low death rate)

Ecologically similar species can coexist in a community if there are one or more significant differences in their niches

Niche potentially occupied by a species

Niche actually occupied bu a species

The presence of one species limits the realized niche of another species

One species will adjust time of activity (if two species are nocturnal, one will become diurnal)

One species cannot survive without the other

Both species can survive alone, but when together the +/+ interaction benefits both species

+/0 interaction in which one species benefits and the other is neither harmed nor helped

Species richness (total # of different species in a community) and relative abundance (proportion of each species represents the total individuals in the community)

Suggests that the length of a food chain is limited due to inefficient energy transfer (only ≈10% of the energy stored in organic matter at each trophic level is converted to the organic matter at the next level)

Dominant species, Keystone species, and Ecosystem engineers

Species that are the most abundant or have the largest biomass (including invasive species); most competitive and/or most successful at surviving

Exerts strong control on a community by their ecological roles or niches (not necessarily abundant)

Example: alligator holes/nests provide shelter for a variety of species

Cause physical changes in the environment that affect community structure (ex. beaver dams)

An event that changes a community by removing organisms or altering resource availability

Suggests that moderate levels of disturbance can foster greater diversity than either high or low levels of disturbance

Exclude many slow-growing species

Allow dominant species to exclude less competitive species

Humans have the greatest impact on biological communities worldwide, and human disturbance to communities usually reduces species diversity

Latitude and area

Evaporation of water from soil + transpiration of water from plants; function of solar radiation, temperature, and water availability

the measure of potential water loss, assuming water is available; determined by the amount of solar radiation and temperature

The greater the evapotranspiration, the greater the species richness and vice versa (log graph)

-Island size– Distance from the mainland– Immigration and extinction

equals the rate of extinction

Flows through

Cycle within

Energy enters an ecosystem as solar radiation, some is transformed into chemical energy by plants that are transferred to other organisms, and is ultimately lost as heat (nothing created/destroyed)

energy conversions are not completely efficient, and some energy is always lost as heat

build molecules themselves using photosynthesis or chemosynthesis as an energy source

Depend on the biosynthetic output of other organisms

Primary producers (autotrophs) → Primary consumers (herbivores) → Secondary consumers (carnivores) → Tertiary consumers (carnivores that feed on other carnivores) → Detritivores/decomposers (consumers that derive energy from detritus, nonliving organic matter)

The amount of light energy converted to chemical energy by autotrophs during a given time period; limited by amount of solar radiation

Total primary production, measured as the conversion of energy from light to organic chemical energy per unit time

amount of new biomass added in a given area over a given time period, not the total biomass of autotrophs

Equal to GPP minus energy used by primary producers for respiration

Tropical rain forests, estuaries, and coral reefs

Marine ecosystems are relatively unproductive per unit area, but contribute much to global net primary production because of their volume

An element that must be added for production to increase in an area

Nitrogen and phosphorous

Soil (which includes nitrogen and phosphorous)

The amount of chemical energy in consumers’ food converted into new biomass during a given period of time

The fraction of energy stored in assimilated food that is not used for respiration

1-3%

10%

40%

Is the first, most general mechanism of defense

Mast cells and histamines

Plasma cells that secrete antibodies for the antigen

Be unable to differentiate and mature T cells

One C region and one V region

Antigen fragment is presented by MHC I to T cell receptor

Memory

Presentation of MHC-antigen complex on a cell surface

Variable regions of heavy and light chains combined

They do not perform metabolic processes

Large number of phages released at a time

Uses viral RNA as a template for DNA synthesis

Bacilli

Temperate phages

Fimbriae

Plasmid

Meiosis

Light for energy and CO2 for carbon

recombinant F-

Vegetation demonstrating vertical layering

Convergent evolution

changes in water density as seasonal temperatures change

An oligotrophic lake

Oxygen concentrations and nutrient levels

Aphotic zone

Grows at its maximum per capita rate

An "S" or sigmoidal shaped curve

Competition for resources

Iteroperous, K-selected

Birth rates and death rates are high

Expand its realized niche

Egrets eat insects stirred by grazing bison

2 species of unpalatable butterfly with the same color pattern

10kg

25W, 25X, 25Y, 25Z

Heterotrophs

producers and decomposers

Phytoplankton

Rate of decomposition

increased temperature, increased water availability, and increased sunlight

Net ecosystem production

Bioremediation

Variable regions

5, 2, 1, 3, 4

They are not very highly evolved

tend to be less antibiotic resistant than gram positive bacteria